KPDS İNGİLİZCE DERS - 10

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KPDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 10: INTRODUCTION TO VERBS

I. CLASSES OF VERBS

A There are two classes of verbs in English:

1 The auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries): to be, to have, to do; can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would; to need, to dare and used.

2 All other verbs, which we may call ordinary verbs: to work to sing to pray

B be, have, do, need and dare have infinitives and participles like ordinary verbs, but can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will and would have neither infinitives nor participles and therefore have only a restricted number of forms.

• Before studying auxiliaries it may be helpful to consider ordinary verbs, most of whose tenses are formed with auxiliaries.

II. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE ACTIVE VERB

Affirmative Negative
Present infinitive to work not to work
Present continuous infinitive to be working not to be working
Perfect infinitive to have worked not to have worked
Perfect continuous infinitive to have been working not to have been working
Present participle and gerund working not working
Perfect participle and gerund having worked not having worked
Past participle worked

• In regular verbs the simple past and the past participle are both formed by adding d or ed to the infinitive. Sometimes the final consonant of the infinitive has to be doubled, e.g. slip, slipped.

• The present participle and gerund are always regular and are formed by adding -ing to the infinitive. The rule concerning the doubling of the final consonant of the infinitive before adding -ing applies here also.

III. ACTIVE TENSES

A Form

Present simple he works
continuous he is working
perfect he has worked
perfect continuous he has been working

Past simple he worked
continuous he was working
perfect he had worked
perfect continuous he had been working

Future simple he will work
continuous he will be working
perfect he will have worked
perfect continuous he will have been working
Present conditional he would work
conditional continuous he would be working
Perfect conditional he would have worked
conditional continuous he would have been working

B Affirmative contractions

• The auxiliaries be, have, will, would are contracted as follows.

am ‘m have ‘ve will ‘ll
is ’s has ’s would ‘d
are ‘re had ‘d

• Note that ’s can be is or has and ‘d can be had or would:

He’s going = He is going.
He’s gone = He has gone.
He’d paid = He had paid.
He’d like a drink = He would like a drink.

• These contractions are used after pronouns, here, there, some question words, and short nouns:

Here’s your pen. The twins’ve arrived. The car’d broken down.

• Affirmative contractions are not used at the end of sentences:

You aren’t in a hurry but I am. (I’m would not be possible here.)

• shall/should, was and were are not written in a contracted form

C Stress

• Auxiliaries used to form tenses are normally unstressed. The stress falls on the main verb.

IV. NEGATIVES OF TENSES

A The simple present tense: third person singular does not/doesn’t + infinitive; other persons do not/don’t + infinitive. The simple past tense negative for all persons is did not/didn’t + infinitive. Contractions are usual in speech:

He does not/doesn’t answer letters. They do not/don’t live here.
I did not/didn’t phone her. She did not/didn’t wait for me.

• The negative of all other tenses is formed by putting not after the auxiliary. Contractions are usual in speech: He has not/hasn’t finished. He would not/wouldn’t come.

B Negative contractions

• The auxiliaries be, have, will, would, shall, should, do are contracted as follows:

am not ‘m not
is not isn’t or ’s not
are not aren’t or ‘re not
I’m not going and Tom isn’t going/Tom’s not going.
We aren’t going/We ‘re not going.

• have not and has not contract to haven’t and hasn’t, but in perfect tenses ‘ve not and ’s not are also possible:

We haven’t seen him/We’ve not seen him. He hasn’t/He ’s not come yet.

• Other verb forms are contracted in the usual way by adding n’t. Negative contractions can come at the end of a sentence: I saw it but he didn’t.

C In English a negative sentence can have only one negative expression in it. Two negative expressions give the sentence an affirmative meaning: Nobody did nothing means that everyone did something.

• So never, no (adjective), none, nobody, no one, nothing, hardly, hardly ever etc. are used with an affirmative verb. We can say:

He didn’t eat anything. or He ate nothing.
He doesn’t ever complain. or He never complains.
We haven’t seen anyone. or We have seen no one.
They didn’t speak much. or They hardly spoke at all/They hardly ever spoke.

V. INTERROGATIVE FOR QUESTIONS AND REQUESTS

A Simple present tense interrogative: does he/she/it + infinitive; do I/you/we/they + infinitive. Simple past tense interrogative: did + subject + infinitive. Does Peter enjoy parties? Did he enjoy Ann’s party?

• In all other tenses the interrogative is formed by putting the subject after the auxiliary:

Have you finished? Are you coming?

B Contractions of auxiliaries used in the interrogative

1 am, is, are, have, had, will and would

• After how, what, who, where, why, these can be contracted:

How will/How’ll he get there? What has/What’s happened?

• is and will can also be contracted after when: When is/When’s he coming?

• will can also be contracted after which: Which will / Which’ll you have?

• When the verb comes first as in A above, it is not contracted in writing except in negative interrogative forms. But in speech it is usually contracted.

2 shall, should, do and did are not written in contracted form, although do you is sometimes written d’you. In speech shall, should and do you are often contracted to /jl, jad, dju:/.

C The interrogative form is used for questions, but it is not used:

1 When the question is about the identity of the subject: Who told you? What happened?

2 In indirect speech: He said, ‘Where does she live?’ = He asked where she lived.

3 If we place before the question a prefix such as Do you know, Can you tell me, I want to know, I’d like to know, I wonder/was wondering, Have you any idea, Do you think:

What time does it start? but Have you any idea what time it starts?
Where does Peter live? but I wonder where Peter lives.
Will I have to pay duty on this? but Do you think I’ll have/Do you know if I’ll have to pay duty?

D Requests are usually expressed by the interrogative:

Can/Could you help me? Will/Would you pay at the desk?
Would you like to come this way? Would you mind moving your car?

• But here again, if before the request we put a phrase such as I wonder / was wondering or Do you think, the verb in the request changes from interrogative to affirmative:

Could you give me a hand with this? but
I wonder/was wondering/wondered if you could give me a hand. or
Do you think you could give me a hand?

• In indirect speech the problem does not arise, as indirect requests are expressed by a verb such as ask with object + infinitive: He asked me to give him a hand.

E The interrogative is used in question tags after a negative verb: You didn’t see him, did you?

F When, for emphasis, words/phrases such as never, rarely, seldom, only when, only by, not only, not till are placed first in a sentence the following main verb is put into the inverted (= interrogative) form:

Only when we landed did we see how badly the plane had been damaged.

VI. NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

A This is formed by putting not after the ordinary interrogative:

Did you not see her? Is he not coming?

• But this form is almost always contracted: Didn’t you see her? Isn’t he coming?

• Note that not is now before the subject. am I not? has an irregular contraction: aren’t I?

B The negative interrogative is used when the speaker expects or hopes for an affirmative answer:

Haven’t you finished yet? Don’t you like my new dress?
CHILD: Can’t I stay up till the end of the program?
I could wait ten minutes. ~ Couldn’t you wait a little longer?

C The negative interrogative is also used in question tags after an affirmative sentence:

You paid him, didn’t you? She would like to come, wouldn’t she?

VII. AUXILIARIES AND MODAL AUXILIARIES

Principal auxiliaries Modal auxiliaries Semi-modals
to be can could to need
to have may might to dare
to do must had to used
ought
shall should
will would

• Auxiliaries help to form a tense or an expression, hence the name. They combine with present or past participles or with infinitives to form the tenses of ordinary verbs:

I am coming. He has finished. I didn’t see them.

• They combine with infinitives to indicate permission, possibility, obligation, deduction etc. as will be shown in the following chapters:

He can speak French. You may go. We must hurry.

VIII. AUXILIARIES: FORMS AND PATTERNS

A be, have and do (the principal auxiliaries)

Infinitive Present tense Past tense Past participle
to be am, is, are was
to have have, has had had
to do do, does did done

1 In the negative and interrogative, be and do follow the auxiliary pattern:

• Negative, verb + not: He isn’t coming. It did not matter.

• Interrogative, subject + verb: Was he waiting? Does she see us?

2 have normally follows the auxiliary pattern: Has he (got) to go?

• But sometimes uses do/did forms: Does he have to go?

3 be takes the full infinitive: They are to wait for us at the station.

• have takes the full infinitive except in two constructions.

• do takes the bare infinitive: Did he write?

4 be, have and do, when used as auxiliaries, require a participle or infinitive, though in answers, comments etc. this is often understood but not mentioned: Have you seen it? ~ Yes, I have (seen it)

5 be, have and do can also be used as ordinary verbs with independent meanings; i.e. have can mean ‘possess’ , do can mean ‘perform/occupy oneself etc.

• be or have or do can then be the only verb in a sentence: He is lazy He has no job

He does nothing.

• do is then conjugated with do/did: What do you do in the evenings?

• and have can be conjugated in either way: Have you (got) time?/Do you have time?

B can, could, may, might, must, ought, will, would, shall and should (the modal auxiliaries)

• Modal verbs have no final s in the third person singular: I must, he must I can, he can

• They always form their negative and interrogative according to the auxiliary pattern:

will not ought not. . .
will he . . . ? ought he . . . ?

• They have no proper past tenses; four past forms exist, could, might, should, would, but they have only a restricted use. Modal verbs have no infinitives or participles and therefore cannot be used in the continuous tenses. All modal verbs except ought are followed by the bare infinitive:

You should pay but You ought to pay.

• A modal verb always requires an infinitive, though sometimes this is understood but not mentioned: Can you understand? ~ Yes, I can (understand).

C need, dare and used (the semi-modals)

1 When used as auxiliaries, need and dare can conform to the modal pattern. They then take the bare infinitive: He need not wait.

• But they can also use the do/did forms, and then take the full infinitive with to:

He doesn’t dare to interrupt. They didn’t need to wait.

• need and dare can also be used as ordinary verbs, and are then inflected and have the usual participles: He needs help. They dared me to jump.

2 used, sometimes referred to as used to, is used only in the past. For its negative and interrogative it usually follows the auxiliary pattern: I used not go.

• But though technically used has no infinitive, the forms didn’t use to and did he/she etc. use to? are quite often heard.

• Auxiliaries are extremely important in conversation because in short answers, agreements, disagreements with remarks, additions to remarks etc. we use auxiliaries instead of repeating the original verb.

IX. AUXILIARIES IN SHORT ANSWERS

• Questions requiring the answer yes or no, i.e. questions such as Do you smoke? or Can you ride a bicycle?, should be answered by yes or no and the auxiliary only. The original subject, if a noun, is replaced by a pronoun. Pronoun subjects may change as shown:

Do you smoke? ~ Yes, I do (not Yes, I smoke). Is that Ann? ~ Yes, it is/No, it isn’t.
Did the twins go? ~ Yes, they did/No, they didn’t.
Will there be an exam? ~ Yes, there will/No, there won’t.

• If there is more than one auxiliary in the question, the first should be used in the answer:

Should he have gone? ~ Yes, he should.

• Questions with must I/he etc. or need I/he etc. are answered Yes, you/he etc. must or No, you/he etc. needn’t: Must I/Need I take all these pills? ~ Yes, you must/No, you needn’t.

• An answer with yes or no without the auxiliary would be less polite.

X. AGREEMENTS AND DISAGREEMENTS WITH REMARKS

A Agreements with affirmative remarks are made with yes/so/of course + + affirmative auxiliary. If there is an auxiliary in the first verb this is repeated. If there is no auxiliary do, does or did is used:

He works too hard. ~ Yes, he does. There may be a strike. ~ Yes, there may.
Living in London will be expensive. ~ (Yes,) of course it will.
That’s Ann! ~ Oh, so it is.

B Disagreements with negative remarks are made with yes/oh yes + affirmative auxiliary. The auxiliary is stressed here.

I won’t have to pay. ~ Oh yes, you will! My alarm didn’t ring! ~ Oh yes, it did!
There isn’t any salt in this. ~ Yes, there is. Bread won’t make me fat. ~ Oh yes, it will.

C Agreements with negative remarks are made with no + negative auxiliary:

It wouldn’t take long to get there. ~ No, it wouldn’t.
I haven’t paid you yet. ~ No, you haven’t.
The boys mustn’t be late. ~ No, they mustn’t.
The door can’t have been locked. ~ No, it can’t.

D Disagreements with affirmative remarks are expressed by no/oh no + negative auxiliary:

Ann will lend it to you. ~ Oh no, she won’t Peter gets up too late. ~ No, he doesn’t.
There is plenty of time. – No, there isn’t. Prices are coming down. ~ Oh no, they aren’t.

• but can be used when disagreeing with an assumption. The assumption may be expressed by a question: Why did you travel first class? ~ But I didn’t!

XI. QUESTION TAGS

• These are short additions to sentences, asking for agreement or confirmation.

A After negative statements we use the ordinary interrogative:

You didn’t see him, did you? Ann can’t swim, can she? That isn’t Tom, is it?

• After affirmative statements we use the negative interrogative:

Peter helped you, didn’t he? Mary was there, wasn’t she?

• Negative verbs in the tags are usually contracted. Irregular: I’m late, aren’t I?
• Note that let’s has the tag shall: Let’s go, shall we? The subject of the tag is always a pronoun.

B Examples of question tags after negative statements:

Peter doesn’t smoke, does he? Ann isn’t studying music, is she?
Bill didn’t want to go, did he? James wasn’t driving the car, was he?
You haven’t ridden a horse for a long time, have you?
The twins hadn’t seen a hovercraft before, had they?
They couldn’t understand him, could they? There wasn’t enough time, was there?
People shouldn’t drop litter on pavements, should they?
Ann hasn’t got color TV, has she?

• Note that statements containing words such as neither, no (adjective), none, no one, nobody, nothing, scarcely, barely, hardly, hardly ever, seldom are treated as negative statements and followed by an ordinary interrogative tag:

No salt is allowed, is it? Nothing was said, was it?
Peter hardly ever goes to parties, does he?

• When the subject of the sentence is anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, none, neither we use the pronoun they as subject of the tag:

I don’t suppose anyone will volunteer, will they? No one would object, would they?
Neither of them complained, did they?

C Question tags after affirmative statements

• With the simple present tense we use don’t/doesn’t? in the tag. With the simple past tense we use didn’t? Edward lives here, doesn’t he? You found your passport, didn’t you?

• After all other tenses we just put the auxiliary verb into the negative interrogative:

Mary’s coming tomorrow, isn’t she? Peter’s heard the news, hasn’t he?

• Remember that ’s = is or has, and ‘d = had or would:

Peter’d written before you phoned, hadn’t he? Mary’d come if you asked her, wouldn’t she?
You’d better change your wet shoes, hadn’t you? The boys’d rather go by air, wouldn’t they?

• With everybody, everyone, somebody, someone we use the pronoun they:

Everyone warned you, didn’t they? Someone had recognized him, hadn’t they?

• Negative interrogative tags without contractions are possible but t’1 word order is different:

You saw him, did you not? (This is a much less usual form.)

D Intonation

• When question tags are used the speaker doesn’t normally need information but merely expects agreement. These tags are therefore usually said with a falling intonation, as in statements. Sometimes, however, the speaker does want information. He is not quite sure that the statement is true, and wants to be reassured. In this case the question tag is said with a rising intonation and the important word in the first sentence is stressed, usually with a rise of pitch.

XII. COMMENT TAGS

A These are formed with auxiliary verbs, just like question tags, but after an affirmative statement we use an ordinary interrogative tag; after a negative statement we use a negative interrogative tag. A comment tag can be added to an affirmative statement. It then indicates that the speaker notes the fact.

You saw him, did you? = Oh, so you saw him.
You’ve found a job, have you? – Oh, so you’ve found a job.

• Comment tags can also be spoken in answer to an affirmative or negative statement:

I’m living in London now. ~ Are you? I didn’t pay Paul. ~ Didn’t you?

• When used in this way the tag is roughly equivalent to Really! or Indeed!

B The chief use of these tags is to express the speaker’s reaction to a statement. By the tone of his voice he can indicate that he is interested, not interested, surprised, pleased, delighted, angry, suspicious, disbelieving etc.

• The speaker’s feelings can be expressed more forcibly by adding an auxiliary:

I borrowed your car. ~ Oh, you did, did you?
I didn’t think you ‘d need it. ~ Oh, you didn’t, didn’t you? (i.e. before an ordinary interrogative we use an affirmative auxiliary verb, before a negative interrogative we use a negative verb.)

• Again, the meaning depends on the tone of voice used. The speaker may be very angry, even truculent; but the form could also express admiration or amusement.

XIII. ADDITIONS TO REMARKS

A Affirmative additions to affirmative remarks can be made by subject + auxiliary + too/also or by so + auxiliary + subject, in that order. If there is an auxiliary in the first remark, it is repeated in the addition:
Bill would enjoy a game and Tom would too/so would Tom.

• If there is no auxiliary, do/does/did is used in the addition; i.e. instead of saying Bill likes golf and Tom likes golf (too) we can say Bill likes golf and Tom does too/so does Tom.

• The additions can, of course, be spoken by another person:

The boys cheated! ~ The girls did too/So did the girls!
I’m having a tooth out tomorrow. ~ So am I!

• When both remarks are made by the same person, both subjects are usually stressed. When they are made by different people the second subject is stressed more strongly than the first.

B Affirmative additions to negative remarks are made with but + subject + auxiliary:

Bill hasn’t got a license. ~ But Donald has.
She doesn’t eat meat but her husband does.
The horse wasn’t hurt but the rider was.

C Negative additions to affirmative remarks are made with but + subject + negative auxiliary:

He likes pop music but I don’t. You can go but I can’t. Peter passed the test but Bill didn’t.

D Negative additions to negative remarks are made with neither/nor + auxiliary + subject:

Tom never goes to concerts, neither does his wife.
Ann hasn’t any spare time. ~ Neither/Nor have I.
I didn’t get much sleep last night. ~ Neither/Nor did I.

• These additions can also be made with subject + negative auxiliary + either:

He didn’t like the book; I didn’t either. They don’t mind the noise; we don’t either.

• Alternatively, we can use the whole verb + object, if there is one, + either:

I didn’t like it either. We don’t mind it either.

XIV. BE, HAVE, DO

I. FORM AND USE IN THE FORMATION OF TENSES

A Form

• Principal parts: be, was, been

• Gerund/present participle: being

• Present tense:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I am/I’m I am not/ I’m not am I?
you are/you’re you are not/you’re not are you?
he is/he’s he is not/he’s not is he?
she is/she’s she is not/she’s not is she?
it is/it’s it is not/it’s not is it?
we are/we’re we are not/we’re not are we?
you are/you’re you are not/you’re not are you?
they are/they’re they are not/they’re not are they?

• Alternative negative contractions: you aren’t, he isn’t etc.

• Negative interrogative: am I not/aren’t I? are you not/aren’t you? is he not/isn’t he? etc.

• Past tense:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I was I was not/wasn’t was I?
you were you were not/weren’t were you?
he/she/it was he/she/it was not/wasn’t was he/she/it?
we were we were not/weren’t were we?
you were you were not/weren’t were you?
they were they were not/weren’t were they?
• Negative interrogative: was I not/wasn’t I? were you not/weren’t you? was he not/wasn’t he? etc.

• The forms are the same when be is used as an ordinary verb. Other tenses follow the rules for ordinary verbs. But be is not normally used in the continuous form except in the passive.

B Use to form tenses

• be is used in continuous active forms: He is working/will be working etc., and in all passive forms:

He was followed/is being followed.

• Note that be can be used in the continuous forms in the passive:

Active: They are carrying him. Passive: He is being carried.

XV. BE + INFINITIVE

A The be + infinitive construction, e.g. I am to go, is extremely important and can be used in the following ways:

1 To convey orders or instructions:

No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police. (no one must leave)
He is to stay here till we return. (he must stay)

• This is a rather impersonal way of giving instructions and is chiefly used with the third person. When used with you it often implies that the speaker is passing on instructions issued by someone else. The difference between (a) Stay here, Tom and (b) You are to stay here, Tom is that in (a) the speaker himself is ordering Tom to stay, while in (b) he may be merely conveying to Tom the wishes of another person.

• This distinction disappears of course in indirect speech, and the be + infinitive construction is an extremely useful way of expressing indirect commands, particularly when the introductory verb is in the present tense: He says, ‘Wait till I come.’ = He says that we are to wait till he comes.

• or when there is a clause in front of the imperative: He said, ‘If I fall asleep at the wheel wake me up.’ = He said that if he fell asleep at the wheel she was to wake him up.

• It is also used in reporting requests for instructions: ‘Where shall I put it, sir?’ he asked = He asked where he was to put it.

2 To convey a plan: She is to be married next month. The expedition is to start in a week’s time.

• This construction is very much used in newspapers:

The Prime Minister is to make a statement tomorrow.

• In headlines the verb be is often omitted to save space:

Prime Minister to make statement tomorrow.

• Past forms:

He was to go. (present infinitive) He was to have gone. (perfect infinitive)

• The first of these doesn’t tell us whether the plan was carried out or not. The second is used for an unfulfilled plan, i.e. one which was not carried out:

The Lord Mayor was to have laid the foundation stone but he was taken ill last night so the Lady Mayoress is doing it instead.

B was/were + infinitive can express an idea of destiny:

He received a blow on the head. It didn’t worry him at the time but it was to be very troublesome later. (turned out to be/proved troublesome)
They said goodbye, little knowing that they were never to meet again. (were destined never to meet)

C be about + infinitive expresses the immediate future:

They are about to start. (They are just going to start/They are on the point of starting.)

• just can be added to make the future even more immediate: They are just about to leave.

• Similarly in the past: He was just about to dive when he saw the shark.

• be on the point of + gerund has the same meaning as be about + infinitive, but is a shade more immediate.

XVI. BE TO DENOTE EXISTENCE, BE + ADJECTIVE

A be is the verb normally used to denote the existence of, or to give information about, a person or thing:

Tom is a carpenter. The dog is in the garden.
Malta is an island. The roads were rough and narrow.
Gold is a metal. Peter was tall and fair.

B be is used to express physical or mental condition:

I am hot/cold. He was excited/calm. They will be happy/unhappy.

• With certain adjectives, e.g. quiet/noisy, good/bad, wise/foolish, it is possible to use the continuous form of be, e.g. Tom is being foolish, to imply that the subject is showing this quality at this time. Compare Tom is being foolish, which means Tom is talking or acting foolishly now, with Tom is foolish, which means that Tom always acts or talks foolishly. Similarly, The children are being quiet means they are playing quietly now, but The children are quiet might mean that they usually play quietly.

• Other adjectives include:

annoying generous/mean
cautious/rash helpful/unhelpful
clever/stupid irritating
difficult mysterious
economical/extravagant optimistic/pessimistic
formal polite
funny selfish/unselfish

• With some of these, e.g. stupid, difficult, funny, polite, the continuous form may imply that the subject is deliberately acting in this way:

You are being stupid may mean You are not trying to understand.
He is being difficult usually means He is raising unnecessary objections.
He is being funny usually means He is only joking. Don’t believe him.
She is just being polite probably means She is only pretending to admire your car/clothes/house etc.

C be is used for age:

How old are you? – I’m ten/I am ten years old. (not I’m ten years)
How old is the tower? ~ It is 400 years old. (years old must be used when giving the age of things.)

D Size and weight are expressed by be:

How tall are you?/What is your height? ~ I am 1′65 meters.
How high are we now? ~ We’re about 20,000 feet.
What is your weight? or What do you weigh/How much do you weigh?
~ I am 65 kilos or I weigh 65 kilos.

E be is used for prices:

How much is this melon? or What does this melon cost? ~ It’s $1. The best seats are (= cost) $25.

XVII. THERE IS/ARE, THERE WAS/WERE ETC.

A When a noun representing an indefinite person or thing is the subject of the verb be we normally use a there + be + noun construction. We can say A policeman is at the door but There is a policeman at the door would be more usual.

• Note that, though there appears to be the subject, the real subject is the noun that follows the verb, and if this noun is plural the verb must be plural too: There are two policemen at the door.

• In the above sentences both constructions (noun + be and there + be + noun) are possible. But when be is used to mean exist/happen/ take place the there construction is necessary:

There is a mistake/There are mistakes in this translation.

* These sentences could not be rewritten A mistake is/Mistakes are etc.

• In the following examples (R) is placed after the example when the there construction is replaceable by noun/pronoun + verb:

There have been several break-ins this year.
There will be plenty of room for everyone.
There were hundreds of people on the beach. (R)

B there can be used similarly with someone/anyone/no one/something etc.

There’s someone on the phone for you. (R)

C there + be + something/nothing/anything + adjective is also possible:

Is there anything wrong (with your car)? (R) ~ No, there’s nothing wrong with it. (R)
There’s something odd/strange about this letter.

D A noun or someone/something etc. could be followed by a relative clause:

There’s a film I want to see. There’s something I must say.

• or by an infinitive: There’s nothing to do.

E The there construction can be used with another auxiliary + be:

There must be no doubt about this. There may be a letter for me.

• or with seem + be, appear + be: There seems to be something wrong here.

F there used as above is always unstressed. Be careful not to confuse there used in this way with there, stressed, used as an adverb: There’s a man I want to see. (He is standing by the door.)

• Compare with: There’s a man I want to see. (This man exists.)

XVIII. IT IS AND THERE IS COMPARED

• Some examples may help to prevent confusion between the two forms:

1 it is + adjective; there is + noun:

It is foggy. or There is a fog.
It was very wet. or There was a lot of rain.
It won’t be very sunny. or There won’t be much sun.

2 it is, there is of distance and time:

It’s is a long way to York.
There is a long way still to go. (We have many miles still to go.)
It is time to go home. (We always start home at six and it is six now.)
There is time for us to go home and come back here again before the film starts. (That amount of time exists.)

3 it is, used for identity, and there is + noun/pronoun:

There is someone at the door. I think it’s the man to read the meters. There’s a key here. Is it the key of the safe?

• it is, used in cleft sentences, and there is:

It is the grandmother who makes the decisions, (the grandmother, not any other member of the family), and there’s the grandmother, who lives in the granny-flat. (the grandmother exists)

XIX. HAVE AS AN AUXILIARY VERB

1 FORM AND USE IN THE FORMATION OF TENSES

A Form

• Principal parts: have, had, had Gerund/present participle: having
• Present tense:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I have/I’ve I have not/haven’t have I?
you have/you’ve you have not/haven’t have you?
he has/he’s he has not/hasn’t has he?
she has/she’s she has not/hasn’t has she?
it has/it’s it has not/hasn’t has it?
we have/we’ve we have not/haven’t have we?
you have/you’ve you have not/haven’t have you?
they have/they’ve they have not/haven’t have they?

• Alternative negative contractions (chiefly used in perfect tenses): I’ve not, you’ve not, he’s not etc.

• Negative interrogative: have I not/haven’t I? have you not/haven’t you? has he not/hasn’t he? etc.

• Past tense:

• Affirmative: had/’d for all persons

• Negative: had not/hadn’t for all persons

• Interrogative: had I? etc.

• Negative interrogative: had I not/hadn’t I? etc.

• Other tenses follow the rules for ordinary verbs.

B Use to form tenses

• have is used with the past participle to form the following tenses:

Present perfect: I have worked.

Past perfect: I had worked.

Future perfect: I will/shall have worked.

Perfect conditional: I would/should have worked.

XX. HAVE + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE

A This construction can be used to express more neatly sentences of the type ‘I employed someone to do something for me’; i.e. instead of saying I employed someone to clean my car we can say I had my car cleaned, and instead of I got a man to sweep my chimneys (’got’ here = paid/persuaded etc.), we can say I had my chimneys swept.

• Note that this order of words, i.e. have + object + past participle, must be observed as otherwise the meaning will be changed: He had his hair cut means he employed someone to do it, but He had cut his hair means that he cut it himself some time before the time of speaking (past perfect tense).

• When have is used in this way the negative and interrogative of its present and past tenses are formed with do:

Do you have your windows cleaned every month?
~ I don’t have them cleaned; I clean them myself.
He was talking about having central heating put in. Did he have it put in in the end?

• It can also be used in continuous tenses:

I can’t ask you to dinner this week as I am having my house painted at the moment.
While I was having my hair done the police towed away my car.
The house is too small and he is having a room built on.

• get can be used in the same way as have above but is more colloquial. get is also used when we mention the person who performs the action: She got him to dig away the snow. (She paid/persuaded him to dig etc.)

• have with a bare infinitive can be used in the same way, e.g. She had him dig away the snow, but the get construction is much more usual in British English.)

B The have + object + past participle construction can also be used colloquially to replace a passive verb, usually one concerning some accident or misfortune:

His fruit was stolen before he had a chance to pick it. can be replaced by
He had his fruit stolen before he had a chance to pick it, and Two of his teeth were knocked out in the fight can be replaced by He had two of his teeth knocked out.

• It will be seen that, whereas in A above the subject is the person who orders the thing to be done, here the subject is the person who suffers as a result of the action. The subject could be a thing:

The houses had their roofs ripped off by the gale. get can also replace have here:
The cat got her tail singed through sitting too near the fire. (The cat’s tail was singed etc.)

XXI. HAD BETTER + BARE INFINITIVE

• had here is an unreal past; the meaning is present or future:

I had/I’d better ring him at once/tomorrow. (This would be a good thing to do/the best thing to do.)

• The negative is formed with not after better:

You had better not miss the last bus. (It would be unwise to miss it, or I advise/warn you not to miss it.)

* had here is usually contracted after pronouns and in speech is sometimes so unstressed as to be almost inaudible. had better is not normally used in the ordinary interrogative, but is sometimes used in the negative interrogative as an advice form:

Hadn’t you better ask him first? = Wouldn’t it be a good thing to ask him first?

• you had better is a very useful advice form:

You had better fly. (It would be best for you to fly, or I advise you to fly.)

• In indirect speech had better with the first or third person remains unchanged; had better with the second person can remain unchanged or be reported by advise + object + infinitive:

He said, ‘I’d better hurry’ = He said (that) he ‘d better hurry.
He said, ‘Ann had better hurry’ = He said (that) Ann had better hurry.
He said, ‘You’d better hurry’ = He said (that) I’d better hurry or He advised me to hurry.

XXII. HAVE + OBJECT + PRESENT PARTICIPLE

A This expression is often used with a period of future time:

I’ll have you driving in three days. (As a result of my efforts, you will be driving in three days.)

• It can also be used in the past or present:

He had them all dancing. (He taught/persuaded them all to dance.) I have them all talking to each other. (I encourage/persuade them all to talk to each other.)

• It can be used in the interrogative:

Will you really have her driving in three days? but is not often used in the negative.

B If you give all-night parties you ‘II have the neighbors complaining. (The neighbors will complain/will be complaining.) If film-stars put their numbers in telephone books they’d have everyone ringing them up. (Everyone would ring/would be ringing them up.) you’ll have in the first example conveys the idea ‘this will happen to you’.

• Similarly they’d have in the second example conveys the idea ‘this would happen to them’.

If you don’t put a fence round your garden you ‘II have people walking in and stealing your fruit. (People will walk in and steal/will be walking in and stealing it, i.e. this will happen to you.)

• The construction can be used in the interrogative and negative:

When they move that bus stop, you won’t have people sitting on your steps waiting for the bus any more.

• This structure is chiefly used for actions which would be displeasing to the subject of have, as in the above example, but it can be used for an action which is not displeasing:

When he became famous, he had people stopping him in the street and asking for his autograph =
When he became famous, people stopped him in the street and asked for his autograph.

• But I won’t have + object + present participle normally means ‘I won’t/don’t allow this’:

I won’t have him sitting down to dinner in his overalls. I make him change them. (I won’t/don’t allow him to sit down etc.) This use is restricted to the first person.

XXIII. HAVE MEANING ‘POSSESS’ AND ‘SUFFER (FROM) PAIN/ILLNESS/DISABILITY’

A Examples:

He has a black beard. I have had this car for ten years.
Have you got a headache? ~ Yes, I have.
The twins have mumps. He has a weak heart.

B Form

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Present have (got) or haven’t (got) or have I (got)? etc. or
have don’t have do you have? etc.
Past had hadn’t (got) or had you (got)? etc. or
didn’t have did you have? etc.

* Note that the negative and interrogative can be formed in two ways.

C have is conjugated with do for habitual actions: Do you often have headache1,? ~ No. I don’t.

• When there is not this idea of habit, the have not (got)/have you (got) forms are more usual in Britain, whereas other English-speaking countries (notably America) use the do forms here also. An American might say: Can you help me now? Do you have time? where an Englishman would probably say: Can you help me now? Have you got time?

D got can be added to have/have not/have you etc. as shown above. It makes no difference to the sense so it is entirely optional, but it is quite a common addition, got, however, is not added in short answers or question tags:

Have you got an ice-axe? ~ Yes, I have. She’s got a nice voice, hasn’t she?

• have (affirmative) followed by got is usually contracted:

I’ve got my ticket. He’s got a flat in Ankara.

• The stress falls on got. The ‘ve or ’s is often barely audible. have (affirmative) without got is often not contracted. The have or has must then be audible.

XXIV. HAVE MEANING ‘TAKE’ (A MEAL), ‘GIVE’ (A PARTY) ETC.

A have can also be used to mean:

• ‘take’ (a meal/food or drink, a bath/a lesson etc.)
• ‘give’ (a party), ‘entertain’ (guests)
• ‘encounter’ (difficulties/trouble)
• ‘experience’, ‘enjoy’, usually with an adjective, e.g. good.

We have lunch at one. They are having a party tomorrow.
Did you have trouble with Customs? I hope you ‘II have a good holiday.

B have when used as above obeys the rules for ordinary verbs:

• It is never followed by got.

• Its negative and interrogative are made with do/did.

• It can be used in the continuous tenses.

We are having breakfast early tomorrow. (near future)
She is having twenty people to dinner next Monday. (near future)
I can’t answer the telephone; I am having a bath. (present)
How many English lessons do you have a week? ~ I have six.
You have coffee at eleven, don’t you? (habit)
Ann has breakfast in bed, but Mary doesn’t. (habit)
Will you have some tea/coffee etc.? (This is an invitation.

• We can also omit Will you and say Have some tea etc.)

Did you have a good time at the theatre? (Did you enjoy yourself?)
Have a good time! (Enjoy yourself!)
I am having a wonderful holiday.
I didn’t have a very good journey.
Do you have earthquakes in your country? ~ Yes, but we don’t have them very often.

XV. DO

1 FORM

• Principal parts: do, did, done

• Gerund/present participle: doing

• Present tense:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I do I do not/don’t do I?
you do you do not/don’t do you?
he does he does not/doesn’t does he?
she does she does not/doesn’t does she?
it does it does not/doesn’t does it?
we do we do not/don’t do we?
you do you do not/don’t do you?
they do they do not/don’t do they?

• Negative interrogative: do I not/don’t I? do you not/don’t you? does he not/doesn’t he? etc.

• do as an ordinary verb has the affirmative shown above. But for negative and interrogative we add the infinitive do to the above forms: What does/did she do?

• Past tense:

• Affirmative: did for all persons
• Negative: did not/didn’t for all persons
• Interrogative: did he? etc.
• Negative interrogative: did he not/didn’t he? etc.
• do is followed by the bare infinitive: I don’t know. Did you see it? He doesn’t like me.

XXVI. DO USED AS AN AUXILIARY

A do is used to form the negative and interrogative of the present simple and past simple tenses of ordinary verbs: He doesn’t work. He didn’t work. Does he work? Did he work?
B It is possible to use do/did + infinitive in the affirmative also when we wish to add special emphasis. It is chiefly used when another speaker has expressed doubt about the action referred to:

You didn’t see him. ~ I did see him. (The did is strongly stressed in speech. This is more emphatic than the normal I saw him.) I know that you didn’t expect me to go, but 1 did go.

C do is used to avoid repetition of a previous ordinary verb:

1 In short agreements and disagreements: Tom talks too much. ~ Yes, he does/No, he doesn’t.

He didn’t go. ~ No, he didn’t/Oh yes, he did.

2 In additions: He likes concerts and so do we. (Note inversion.)

He lives here but I don’t. He doesn’t drive but I do.

3 In question tags: He lives here, doesn’t he? He didn’t see you, did he?

D do is used in short answers to avoid repetition of the main verb: Do you smoke? ~ Yes, I do (not Yes, I smoke)/No, I don’t. Did you see him? ~ Yes, I did/No, I didn’t.

E Similarly in comparisons: He drives faster than I do.

F do + imperative makes a request or invitation more persuasive: Do come with us. (more persuasive than Come with us.) Do work a little harder. Do help me, please.

G It can similarly be used as an approving or encouraging affirmative answer to someone asking for approval of, or permission to do, some action: Shall I write to him? ~ Yes, do or Do alone.

XXVII. DO USED AS AN ORDINARY VERB

• do, like have, can be used as an ordinary verb. It then forms its negative and interrogative in the simple present and past with do/did:

I do not do do you do? don’t you do?
he does not do does he do? doesn’t he do?
I did not do did he do? didn’t he do? etc.

• It can be used in the continuous forms, or simple forms:

What are you doing (now)? -I’m doing my homework.
What’s he doing tomorrow? (near future)
What does he do in the evenings? (habit)
Why did you do it? ~ I did it because I was angry.

• How do you do? is said by both parties after an introduction:

HOSTESS: Mr. Day, may I introduce Mr. Davis? Mr. Davis, Mr. Day. (Both men say How do you do?)

• Originally this was an enquiry about the other person’s health. Now it is merely a formal greeting.

• Some examples of other uses of do:

He doesn’t do what he’s told, (doesn’t obey orders)
What do you do for a living? ~ I’m an artist.
How’s the new boy doing? (getting on)
I haven’t got a torch. Will a candle do? (= be suitable/adequate) ~ A candle won’t do. I’m looking for a gas leak. (A candle would be unsuitable.)
Would $10 do? (= be adequate) ~ No, it wouldn’t. I need $20.

• to do with (in the infinitive only) can mean ‘concern’. It is chiefly used in the construction it is/was something/nothing to do with + noun/ pronoun/gerund: It’s nothing to do with you = It doesn’t concern you.