KPDS İNGİLİZCE DERS - 12

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KPDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 12: MODAL AUXILIARIES

MAY AND CAN FOR PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY

I. MAY USED FOR PERMISSION: FORMS

• may for all persons in the present and future.

• might in the conditional and after verbs in a past tense.

• Negative: may not/mayn’t, might not/mightn’t

• Interrogative: may I? might I? etc.

• Negative interrogative: may I not/mayn’t I? might I not/mightn’t I? etc.

• Other forms are supplied by allow, be allowed.

• may is followed by the bare infinitive.

II. CAN USED FOR PERMISSION: FORMS

• can for all persons in the present and future.

• could for past and conditional.

• Negative: cannot/can’t, could not/couldn’t

• Interrogative: can I? could I? etc.

• Negative interrogative: can I not/can’t I? could I not/couldn’t I? etc.

• Other forms are supplied by allow, be allowed.

• can is followed by the bare infinitive.

III. MAY AND CAN USED FOR PERMISSION IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE

A First person

• I/we can is the most usual form:

I can take a day off whenever I want.

• I/we may meaning ‘I/we have permission to . . .’is possible:

I may leave the office as soon as I have finished.

• But this is not a very common construction and it would be much more usual to say:

I can leave/I’m allowed to leave . . .

• I/we may/might is a little more usual in indirect speech:

‘You may leave when you’ve finished,’ he says/said. = He says we may leave/He said we might leave . . .

• But in colloquial speech we would use can/could: He says we can leave/He said we could leave.

B Second person

• Here may is chiefly used when the speaker is giving permission. You may park here means ‘I give you permission to park’. It does not normally mean The police etc. allow you to park’ or ‘You have a right to park’.

• can can be used as an informal alternative to may here. But it can also be used to express the idea of having permission. You can park here can mean ‘I allow it/The police allow it/You have a right to park here’.

• Similarly You can take two books home with you can mean ‘I allow it/The library allows it’ and You can’t eat sandwiches in the library can mean ‘I don’t allow it/The librarian doesn’t allow it’ or ‘It isn’t the proper thing to do’.

• could can be used when there is an idea of condition:

Why don’t you ring him? You can/could use my phone.

• could is also used in indirect speech introduced by a verb in a past tense:

He said I could use his phone.

C Third person

• may can be used as in B above when the speaker is giving permission:

He may take my car. (I give him permission to take it.)
They may phone the office and reverse the charges.(I give them permission.)

• But it is chiefly used in impersonal statements concerning authority and permission:

In certain circumstances a police officer may (= has the right to) ask a driver to take a breath test.
If convicted, an accused person may (= has the right to) appeal.

SCRABBLE RULES: No letter may be moved after it has been played.

• In informal English can/can’t would be used:

He can take the car. They can phone the office. A police officer can ask a driver . . .
An accused person can appeal. No letter can be moved . . .

IV. COULD OR WAS/WERE ALLOWED TO FOR PERMISSION IN THE PAST

• could can also express general permission in the past:

On Sundays we could (= were allowed to) stay up late.

• When a particular action was permitted and performed we use was/were allowed instead of could:

I had a visa so I was allowed to cross the frontier.

• couldn’t however can be used a little more widely than could: We couldn’t bring our dog into the restaurant.

• The opposite of this would be: We were allowed to bring etc.

• For perfect and continuous tenses and passives allowed must be used’

Since his accident he hasn’t been allowed to drive.
As a child he had been allowed to do exactly what he liked.

V. REQUESTS FOR PERMISSION

A can I?, could I?, may I?, might I? are all possible and can be used for the present or future, can I? is the most informal. could I? is the most generally useful of the four, as it can express both formal and informal requests. may I? is a little more formal than could I? but can also be used for both types of requests. might I? is more diffident than may I? and indicates greater uncertainty about the answer.

B The negative interrogative forms can’t I? and couldn’t I? are used to show that the speaker hopes for an affirmative answer: Can’t I stay up till the end of the program? Couldn’t I pay by check?

• may and might are not used in this way.

C Answers to can I/could I requests will normally be:

Yes, you can. Yes, of course (you can). No, you can’t.

• Affirmative answers to may I/might I requests are normally: Yes, you may. Yes, of course (you may).

• For a negative answer No, you may not is possible but it would normally be replaced by a milder expression: I’d rather you didn’t. I’m afraid not.

D Questions about permission are expressed by can or am/is/are allowed to in the present and by could or was/were allowed to in the past:

Can Tom use the car whenever he likes? Is Tom allowed to use the car . . . ?
Could students choose what they wanted to study? Were students allowed to choose . . . ?

VI. MAY/MIGHT FOR POSSIBILITY

A Form

• may/might for present and future.

• might in the conditional and after verbs in the past tense.

• Negative: may not/mayn’t, might not/mightn’t

• Interrogative: see E below

• Infinitive: to be + likely

B may/might + present infinitive can express possibility in the present or future:

He may/might tell his wife. (Perhaps he tells/will tell his wife.) He may/might emigrate. (Perhaps he will emigrate.)
Ann may/might know Tom’s address. (Perhaps Ann knows etc.)

• Similarly with the continuous infinitive:

He may/might be waiting at the station. (Perhaps he is waiting at the station.)
He may/might be waiting at the station when we arrive. (Perhaps he will be waiting etc.)

C may or might for present or future possibility

• Normally either can be used, might slightly increases the doubt. Note that in speech we can also indicate increased doubt by stressing may/might. Tom may lend you the money (with a strong stress on may) implies that this is not very likely. Tom might lend you the money (with a strong stress on might) implies ‘I don’t think this is at all likely/ I think it is unlikely’.

D might must be used in the conditional and when the expression is introduced by a verb in the past tense:

If you invited him he might come. I knew we might have to wait at the frontier. He said he might hire a car. (indirect speech)

E may/might in the negative and interrogative The negative presents no problems:

He may/might not believe your story. (Perhaps he won’t/doesn’t believe your story.)

• The interrogative is normally expressed by do you think? or a construction with be + likely:

Do you think he’s alone? Do you think he believes your story?
Is it likely that the plane will be late? Is the plane likely to be late?

• may? for possibility very seldom introduces a sentence. It may be placed later on:

When may we expect you? What may be the result of the new tax?

• But a construction with be + likely or think is more usual:

When are you likely to arrive? What do you think the result will be?

• might? is just possible: Might they be waiting outside the station?

• But Could they be waiting? or Do you think they are waiting? would be more usual.

• may/might in the affirmative, however, can form part of a question:

Do you think he may/might not be able to pay?

VII. MAY/MIGHT + PERFECT INFINITIVE

A This is used in speculations about past actions:

He may/might have gone. = It is possible that he went/has gone or Perhaps he went/has gone.

• might must be used when the main verb is in a past tense:

He said/thought that she might have missed the plane.

• might, not may, must be used when the uncertainty no longer exists:

He came home alone. You shouldn’t have let him do that; he might have got lost. (But he didn’t get lost.)

• So in the sentence: You shouldn’t have drunk the wine: it may/might have been drugged the words it may have been drugged would indicate that we are still uncertain whether it was drugged or not. it might have been drugged could have the same meaning but could also mean that we know it wasn’t drugged.

• might, not may, is also used when the matter was never put to the test, as in:

Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might have been quicker.
It’s a good thing you didn’t lend him the money. You might never have got it back.

• Sentences of this kind are very similar to the third type of conditional sentence:

If we had taken the other road we might have arrived earlier.

B may/might can be used in conditional sentences instead of will/would to indicate a possible instead of a certain result:

If he sees you, he will stop. (certain) If he sees you he may stop. (possible)

• Similarly:

If you poured hot water into it, it might crack. and
If you had left it there someone might have stolen it.

VIII. COULD AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO MAY/MIGHT

A could be can be used instead of may/might be:

I wonder where Tom is. ~ He may/might/could be in the library. (Perhaps he is in the library.)

• Similarly when be is part of the continuous infinitive:

I wonder why Bill isn’t here? ~ He may/might/could still be waiting for a bus. (Perhaps he is still waiting for a bus.)

• And when be is part of a passive infinitive:

Do you think the plane will be on time? ~ I don’t know. It may/might/could be delayed by fog. (Perhaps it will be delayed by fog.)

• In the interrogative we can use either could or might:

Might/Could he be waiting for us at the station? (Do you think he is waiting . . . ?)

• In the negative, though, there is a difference of meaning between could and may/might:

He may/might not be driving the car himself. (Perhaps he isn’t driving the car himself.)

• But He couldn’t be driving the car himself expresses a negative deduction. It means This is impossible. He can’t drive’.

B could + the perfect infinitive of any verb can be used instead of may/might + perfect infinitive (possibility):

I wonder how Tom knew about Ann’s engagement. ~ He may/might/could have heard it from Jack. (Perhaps he heard it from Jack.)

• As in A above, in the interrogative we can use might or could:

Could/Might the bank have made a mistake? (Do you think it is possible that the bank (has) made a mistake?)

• But in the negative the meanings differ:

Ann might not have seen Tom yesterday. (perhaps she didn’t see him) but

Ann couldn’t have seen Tom yesterday. (negative deduction: perhaps Ann and Tom were in different towns)

IX. CAN USED TO EXPRESS POSSIBILITY

A General possibility

• Subject + can can mean ‘it is possible’, i.e. circumstances permit (this is quite different from the kind of possibility expressed by may): You can ski on the hills. (There is enough snow.) We can’t bathe here on account of the sharks. (It isn’t safe.) Can you get to the top of the mountain in one day? (Is it possible?)

B can

• can also express occasional possibility:

Measles can be quite dangerous. (Sometimes it is possible for them to be quite dangerous/Sometimes they are quite dangerous.)
The Straits of Dover can be very rough. (It is possible for the Straits to be rough; this sometimes happens.)

• could is used in the past:

He could be very unreasonable. (Sometimes he was unreasonable; this was a possibility.)

• can is used in this way in the present or past tense only, and chiefly in the affirmative.

X. CAN AND BE ABLE FOR ABILITY

• can is used here in conjunction with be + the adjective able, which supplies the missing parts of can and provides an alternative form for the present and past tense. We have therefore the following forms:

• Infinitive: to be able Past participle: been able

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
Future will/shall be able will/shall not be able shall/will I be able?
will he be able? etc.
Present can or am able cannot or am not able can I? or am I able? etc.
Past could or was able could not or was not able could I? or was I able? etc.

• There is only one future form, for can is not used in the future except to express permission. In the conditional, however, we have two forms: could and would be able.

• All other tenses are formed with be able according to the rules for ordinary verbs:

• Present perfect: have been able

• Past perfect: had been able

• Negative interrogative: could you not/couldn’t you? were you not/weren’t you able? will you not/won’t you be able? etc.

• can/be/will/shall not and have can be contracted in the usual way:

I wasn’t able, he won’t be able, I’ve been able.

• can is followed by the bare infinitive.

• be able is followed by the full infinitive.

XI. CAN/AM ABLE, COULD/WAS ABLE

A can and be able

1 shall/will be able is the only future form: Our baby will be able to walk in a few weeks.

2 Either can or am able may be used in the present, can is the more usual:

Can you/Are you able to type?
I can’t pay you today. Can you wait till tomorrow? Or Could you wait? (request; see B2 below)

3 For the present perfect, however, we must use the be able form:

Since his accident he hasn’t been able to leave the house.

B could

1 could can be used with a present meaning when there is an idea of condition:

Could you run the business by yourself? (if this was necessary)
Could he get another job? (if he left this one)
I could get you a copy. (if you want one)

• In the first two examples could is replaceable by would be able.

2 could you? is a very good way of introducing a request. It is an alternative to would you? and a little more polite:

Could you show me the way/lend me $5/wait half an hour? Could you please send me an application form?

• couldn’t you? is also useful:

HOUSEHOLDER: Could you come and mend a leak in a pipe?
PLUMBER: Would sometime next month suit you?
HOUSEHOLDER: Couldn’t you come a little earlier?

C could and was able used for past ability

1 For ability only, either can be used: When I was young I could/was able to climb any tree in the forest.

2 For ability + particular action, use was able:

Although the pilot was badly hurt he was able to explain what had happened. (He could and did explain.)
The boat capsized quite near the bank so the children were able to swim to safety. (They could and did swim.)

• This rule, however, is relaxed in the negative when the action did not take place, and with verbs of the senses:

He read the message but he couldn’t / wasn’t able to understand it.
I could/was able to see him through the window.

D had been able is the past perfect form:

He said he had lost his passport and hadn’t been able to leave the country.

XIII. COULD + PERFECT INFINITIVE

A This form is used for past ability when the action was not performed:

I could have lent you the money. Why didn’t you ask me?

• or when we don’t know whether it was performed or not:

The money has disappeared! Who could have taken it?
Tom could have (taken it); he was here alone yesterday.

• Compare:

He was able to send a message. (He sent it.)
He could have sent a message. (He didn’t send it or we don’t know whether he sent it or not.)

B could + perfect infinitive can also express irritation at or reproach for the non-performance of an action:

You could have told me. = I am annoyed/disappointed that you didn’t tell me. You should have told me.

• There would be a strong stress on the word the speaker wishes to emphasize.
XIV. OUGHT: FORMS

• ought is a modal verb

• The same form can be used for present and future and for the past when preceded by a verb in a past tense or followed by a perfect infinitive:

I ought to write to him today/tomorrow. I knew I ought to write to him.
She said I ought to write. I know/knew that I ought to have written.

• Negative: ought not/oughtn’t Interrogative: ought I? etc.

• Negative interrogative: ought I not/oughtn’t I? etc.

• ought takes the full infinitive, and to remind learners of this, it is sometimes referred to as ought to.

• Questions or remarks with ought may be answered by should and vice versa:

You ought to put in central heating. ~ Yes, I suppose I should.

XV. SHOULD: FORMS

• should is also a modal verb.

• Like ought, the same form can be used for present and future and for the past when preceded by a verb in a past tense, should could replace ought to in the above examples.

• Negative: should not/shouldn’t

• Interrogative: should I? etc.

• Negative interrogative: should I not/shouldn’t I? etc.

• should is followed by the bare infinitive.

• should and ought, used for obligation, normally have the same meaning but should is the more usual form.

• In conversation should/ought to can often be used alone, the infinitive being understood but not mentioned: You should paint/ought to paint your door. ~ Yes, I know I should/I know I ought to.

XVI. OUGHT/SHOULD COMPARED TO MUST AND HAVE TO

A Differences in use

1 ought/should is used to express the subject’s obligation or duty:

You should send in accurate income tax returns.

• or to indicate a correct or sensible action:

They shouldn’t allow parking here; the street is too narrow.
This word is spelt wrongly. There should be another ’s’. (Here there is neither the speaker’s authority, as with must, or external authority, as with have to.) It is more a matter of conscience or good sense:

PIANIST TO PUPIL: You must practice at least an hour a day.
PUPIL TO MUSICAL FRIEND: I have to practice an hour a day!
MUSICAL FRIEND: You ought to/should practice for more than an hour.

2 Another difference between ought/should and must and have to is that with must and have to we normally have the impression that the obligation is being or will be fulfilled. This is particularly the case with the first person but quite often applies to the other persons too. With ought/should we do not necessarily feel that the obligation is being or will be fulfilled. Quite often, especially in the first person, the reverse is the case.

• If a driver says I ought to/should go slowly here; it’s a built-up area he usually implies that he isn’t going to go slowly. If he really intended to go slowly he would say, I must go-/I have to go/I will have to go slowly here.

• Similarly, if someone says We must have a party to celebrate your engagement, his friends are reasonably confident that there will be a party. But if he says We should hare a party … it is not so certain that the party will take place. His tone or expression might indicate that it will not be possible.

B Similarities in use

1 should (but not ought) can be used in formal notices and on information sheets etc.:

Candidates should be prepared to answer questions on . . .
Intending travelers should be in possession of the following documents . . .
On hearing the alarm bell, hotel guests should leave their rooms . . . (must could be used here without change of meaning, but should expresses the obligation more gently.)

2 ought and should can express advice: You ought to/should read this. It’s very good.

• But for more emphatic advice must is better: You must read this. It’s marvelous!

XVII. OUGHT/SHOULD WITH THE CONTINUOUS INFINITIVE

• ought/should with the continuous infinitive expresses the idea that the subject is not fulfilling his obligations or that he is acting foolishly, rashly etc. or not acting sensibly, prudently etc.:

He ought to be studying for his exam. He shouldn’t be spending all his time on the beach.
We should be wearing seat belts. (But we are not wearing them.)
I shouldn’t be telling you this. It’s supposed to be a secret.

XVIII. OUGHT/SHOULD WITH THE PERFECT INFINITIVE

• This construction is used to express an unfulfilled obligation or a sensible action that was neglected. In the negative it expresses a wrong or foolish action in the past.

You ought to have told him that the paint on that seat was wet.
You should have turned his omelet; he likes it turned.
They ought to have stopped at the traffic lights.
She shouldn’t have opened the letter; it wasn’t addressed to her.
The Emergency Exit doors shouldn’t have been blocked.

XIX. MUST AND HAVE TO: FORMS

A must

• must is a modal verb. It is used in the present or future.

• Negative: must not/mustn’t
• Interrogative: must I? etc.
• Negative interrogative: must I not/mustn’t I? etc.

• The past tense is supplied by had to.

• must takes the bare infinitive.

• It can express obligation and emphatic advice:

FATHER: You must get up earlier in the morning. (obligation)
You must take more exercise. Join a squash club. (advice)

B have to

Obligation No obligation
Speaker’s authority External authority
Future must shall/will have to won ‘t have to
Present must have to * have (got) to* don’t/doesn’t have to* haven’t (got) to*
Past had to had to didn’t have to
hadn’t (got) to

C Difference between the starred have to forms

• have to (without got) and its negative don’t/doesn’t have to are the correct forms for habitual actions but can be used for single actions also, and are common in American English. have (got) to and haven’t (got) to are for single actions only:

TOM: I have to go to work every day except Sunday. But I don’t have to work a full day on Saturday.

• But on Sunday he could say:

I’m glad I haven’t (got) to go to work today or I’m glad I don’t have to go to work today

• In the past didn’t have to can be used for both habitual and single actions in the past. hadn’t (got) to is used more for single actions. didn’t have to is the more generally used form. have to in the affirmative expresses obligation. have to in the negative expresses absence of obligation. This can also be expressed by need not, don’t need etc.

XX. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MUST AND HAVE TO IN THE AFFIRMATIVE

A must expresses obligation imposed by the speaker:

MOTHER: You must wipe your feet when you come in. have to expresses external obligation:
SMALL Ben : I have to tape my feet every time I come in.

B Second person examples

1 Speaker’s authority

MOTHER: You must wear a dress tonight. You can’t go to the opera in those dreadful jeans.
EMPLOYER: You must use a dictionary. I’m tired of correcting your spelling mistakes.
DOCTOR: You must cut down on your smoking,

2 External authority

You have to wear uniform on duty, don’t you?
You have to train very hard for these big matches, I suppose.
You’ll have to get up earlier when you start work, won’t you ?
You’ll have to cross the line by the footbridge.

C Third person examples

• Here must is chiefly used in written orders or instructions:

RAILWAY COMPANY : Passengers must cross the line by the footbridge.
OFFICE MANAGER: Staff must be at their desks by 9.00.
REGULATION: A trailer must have two rear lamps.

• When we are merely stating or commenting on another person’s obligations we use have to:

In this office even the senior staff have to be at then desks by 9 00.
She has to make her children’s clothes. She can’t afford to buy them.
They’ll have to send a diver down to examine the hull.

• If we used must instead of have to above it might imply that the speaker had authority to order these actions. But must may be used when the speaker approves of an obligation:

A driver who has knocked someone down must stop (The speaker thinks it is the driver’s duty to stop.) Or when the speaker feels strongly: Something must be done to stop these accidents.

D First person examples

• In the first person the difference between must and have to is less important and very often either form is possible:

TYPIST: I must/will have to buy a dictionary.
PATIENT: I must/have to/will have to cut down on my smoking.

• But have to is better for habits: I have to take two of these pills a day

• and must is better when the obligations are urgent or seem important to the speaker:

I must tell you about a dream I had last night.
Before we do anything I must find my check book.

E Some other examples (all persons)

You must come and see us some time. (This is quite a usual way of expressing a casual invitation.)
The children have to play in the street till their parents come home.
This sort of thing must stop! (The speaker either has authority or feels very strongly about it.)
You must write to your uncle and thank him for his nice present.
If there are no taxis we’ll have to walk.
If your father was a poor man you’d have to work.
We have to walk our dog twice a day.
NOTICE IN SHOP WINDOW Closing down sale! Everything must go!

F Affirmative obligations in the past: had to

• Here the distinction between the speaker’s authority and external authority cannot be expressed and there is only one form, had to:

I ran out of money and had to borrow from Tom.
You had to pay duty on that, I suppose?
There were no buses so he had to walk.

XXI. NEED NOT AND MUST NOT IN THE PRESENT AND FUTURE

• need not can be used for present and future. It has the same form for all persons.

• need not expresses absence of obligation. The speaker gives permission for an action not to be performed or sometimes merely states that an action is not necessary:

EMPLOYER: You needn’t make two copies. One will do.
Give them this check. They needn’t send me a receipt.
You needn’t change (your clothes) Just come as you are.

• must not expresses a negative obligation imposed by the speaker or very emphatic advice:

You mustn’t repeat this to anyone.
NOTICE IN SHOP: Staff must not smoke when serving customers.
You mustn’t leave your car unlocked. This place is full of thieves.

XXII. NEED NOT, MUST NOT AND MUST IN THE PRESENT AND FUTURE

DOCTOR: You needn’t go on a diet; but you must eat sensibly and you mustn’t overeat.
ZOO NOTICE: Visitors must not feed the animals.
RAILWAY NOTICE: Passengers must not walk on the line. You mustn’t drive fast. There is a speed limit here.
You needn’t drive fast. We’ve plenty of time.
You needn’t strike a match. I can see well enough. You mustn’t strike a match. This room is full of gas.
SCHOOL NOTICE: The lifts must not be used during Fire Drill.
You mustn’t wear that dress again. You look terrible in yellow.
TEACHER: You needn’t read the whole book but you must read the first four chapters.
You must cut down that dead tree or it will fall on your house.
DOCTOR: You mustn’t take more than two of these pills at once. Three might be fatal.
DOCTOR (to patient’s wife): If the pain has gone he needn’t take any more of these.

XXIII. NEED: FORMS

A need can be both an auxiliary and an ordinary verb. As an auxiliary it is a semi-modal, i.e. it has both modal and ‘ordinary verb’ forms.

• As a modal, its forms are need or need not/needn’t for all persons in the present and future and in indirect speech. (See C below.)

• Interrogative: need I? etc.
• Negative interrogative: need I not/needn’t I? etc.

• need conjugated as above takes the bare infinitive.

B need as an auxiliary is seldom used in the affirmative except when a negative or interrogative sentence is preceded by an expression which changes the negative or interrogative verb into an affirmative:

I needn’t wear a coat or I don’t suppose I need wear a coat.
Need I tell Tom? or Do you think I need tell Tom?

It is however sometimes used in fairly formal English with hardly/ scarcely or only:

I need hardly say how’ pleased we are to welcome Mr. X. (I needn’t say . . .)
You need only touch one of the pictures for all the alarm bells to start ringing. (If you even touch one of the pictures all the bells . . .)

C ‘needn’t’ in direct speech can be reported unchanged:

‘You needn’t pay till the 31st’ he says/said = He says/said I needn’t pay till the 31st.

D need can also be conjugated as an ordinary verb with negative.

• need conjugated with will/shall, do/does/did etc. takes the full infinitive and is sometimes referred to as need to.

XXIV. ABSENCE OF OBLIGATION: FORMS

Speaker’s authority External authority
Future need not won’t need
won’t have to
Present need not don’t/doesn’t need to don’t / doesn’t have to
Past didn’t need to didn’t have to

• won’t need to = won’t have to
• don’t/doesn’t need to = don ‘t/doesn’t have to
• didn’t need to = didn’t have to (but didn’t have to is the more usual form)

• There are no exact need equivalents of haven ‘t/hasn’t got to and hadn’t got to as can be seen from the table.
XXV. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NEED NOT AND THE OTHER FORMS

1 As already stated, need not expresses the speaker’s authority or advice:

You needn’t write me another check. Just change the date and initial it.
I’m in no hurry. He needn’t send it by air. He can send it by sea.
You needn’t do it by hand. I’ll lend you my machine.
You needn’t call me Mr. Jones. We all use first names here.
COLLEGE LECTURER: You needn’t type your essays but you must write legibly.

2 The other forms express external authority:

Tom doesn’t have to wear uniform at school.
We don’t have to type our essays but we have to write legibly.
When I’m an old age pensioner, I won’t have to pay any more bus fares.
Ann hasn’t got to go/doesn’t have to go to this lecture. Attendance is optional.
When I have a telephone of my own, I won’t have to waste time waiting outside these wretched telephone boxes.
Ann doesn’t have to cook for herself. She works at a hotel and gets all her meals there.

3 Sometimes, however, need not can be used for external authority also, as an alternative to won’t/don’t need to or won’t/don’t have to forms. This is particularly common in the first person:

I needn’t type/I won ‘t/don ‘t have to type this report today. Mr. Jones said that there was no hurry about it.

• Note, however, that though it is possible to use need not for a future habitual action:

I’m retiring. After Friday I need never go to the office again.

• it is not possible to use it for a present habitual action: I don’t have to queue for my bus. I get on at the terminus. (need not could not be used here.)

B Past

• Here the distinction between the speaker’s authority and external authority disappears, and we have a choice of three forms: didn’t have to, didn’t need to and hadn’t got to. There is no difference in meaning, but hadn’t got to is not normally used for habitual actions. didn’t have to is the most usual form:

I didn’t have to wait long. He was only a few minutes late.
When he was at university he didn’t have to/need to pay anything for his keep, for he stayed with his uncle.

XXVI. MUST, HAVE TO AND NEED IN THE INTERROGATIVE

Asking the authority External authority
Future must I? etc. shall I/we have to? shall I/we need to?
need I? etc. will he have to? etc. will he need to? etc.
Present must I? etc. do I/we have to? do I/we need to?
need I? etc. does he have to? etc. does he need to? etc.
have I/we (got) to?
has he (got) to? etc.
Past did he have to? etc.
did he need to? etc.
had he got to? etc.

• Both need? and must? imply that the person addressed is the authority concerned, need? also implies that the speaker is hoping for a negative answer: Must I go, mother? and Need I go, mother? mean the same, but in the second question the speaker is hoping that his mother will say No. The other interrogative form of need, do I need? etc., can be used similarly. Note possible answers:

Shall I have to go? ~ Yes, you will/No, you won’t.
Have I got to go? ~ Yes, you have/No, you haven’t.
Does he have to go? ~ Yes, he does/No, he doesn’t.
Need I go? ~ Yes, you must/No, you needn’t.
Must I go? ~ Yes, you must/No, you needn’t.

XXVII. NEEDN’T + PERFECT INFINITIVE

• This structure is used to express an unnecessary action which was nevertheless performed:

I needn’t have written to him because he phoned me shortly afterwards. (But I had written, thus wasting my time.)
You needn’t have brought your umbrella for we are going by car. (You brought your umbrella unnecessarily.)
He needn’t have left home at 6.00; the train doesn’t start till 7.30. (So he will have an hour to wait.)

XXVIII. NEEDN’T HAVE (DONE) COMPARED WITH DIDN’T HAVE/ NEED (TO DO)

A needn’t have done: no obligation but action performed (unnecessarily), i.e. time wasted:

You needn’t have watered the flowers, for it is going to rain. (You wasted your time.)
You needn’t have written such a long essay. The teacher only asked for 300 words, and you have written 600.
He needn’t have bought such a large house. His wife would have been quite happy in a cottage, (waste of money)
You needn’t have carried all these parcels yourself. The shop would have delivered them if you had asked them.

B didn’t have/need to do: no obligation, and normally no action:

I didn’t have to translate it for him for he understands Dutch.
I didn’t have to cut the grass myself. My brother did it. (no obligation and no action)

• Some people do use didn’t have to/didn’t need to for actions which were performed. The have or need is then usually stressed: You didn’t have to give him my name. would then mean ‘It wasn’t necessary to give him my name, but you gave it to him’. But the learner is advised to use needn’t have + past participle when an unnecessary action was performed: You needn’t have given him my name.

XXIX. NEEDN’T, COULD AND SHOULD + PERFECT INFINITIVE

A needn’t + perfect infinitive is often combined with could + perfect infinitive. The use of this combination is best shown by examples:

I wanted a copy of the letter, so I typed it twice. ~ You needn’t have typed it twice. You could have used a carbon.
I walked up six flights of stairs. ~ You needn’t have walked up; you could have taken the lift.
She stood in a queue to get an Underground ticket. ~ But she needn’t have stood in a queue. She could have got a ticket from the machine.

B needn’t have and should have compared

• should or ought to could be used instead of need or could in all the examples in A above:

She shouldn’t hare stood in a queue. She should have got tickets from the machine.

• But there is a difference in meaning:

She shouldn’t have stood in a queue. (It was wrong or foolish of her to stand in a queue.)
She needn’t have stood in a queue. (It was not necessary to do this, but she did it.)

• shouldn’t have (done) implies criticism. needn’t have (done) does not imply criticism.

XXX. TO NEED AS AN ORDINARY VERB, MEANING ‘REQUIRE’

• need can be conjugated as an ordinary verb. It then has the normal regular forms, but no continuous tense.

• to need can be used with an infinitive or with a noun/pronoun object:

I need to know the exact size. How much money do you need? I need $5.

• to need can also be used with the passive infinitive or the gerund in such sentences as:

Your hair needs to be cut/needs cutting. The windows need to be washed/need cashing.

• want + gerund can be used instead of need here: Your hair wants cutting.

XXXI. MUST USED FOR DEDUCTION

A Forms Present

• must + present infinitive: He must live here, or must + continuous infinitive: He must be living here.

• Past must + perfect infinitive: He must have lived here, or must + continuous perfect infinitive: He must have been living here.

• Note the difference between the past forms of must used for deduction and the past equivalent of must used for obligation: had to. must is not used for negative deduction and is not normally used in the interrogative except when querying a deduction with must: There’s a lot of noise from upstairs. It must be Tom. ~ Why must it be Tom? Other people use that flat.

B Examples

He has a house in London and another in Paris, so he must be rich.
I’ve had no sleep for 48 hours. ~ You must be exhausted.
He develops his own films. That must save him a lot of money.
I keep meeting him on the bus. He must live/must be living near by.
The police are stopping all cars. They must be looking for the escaped prisoner.
What explosion? I didn’t hear any. ~ You must have heard it! The whole town heard it!
He must have taken sleeping pills last night. He didn’t wake up till lunch time.
I waited under the clock! ~ So did I, but I didn’t see you! We must have been waiting under different clocks.
It was a head-on collision, but the drivers weren’t hurt. ~ They must have been wearing their seat belts.

XXXII. MUST (DEDUCTION) COMPARED TO MAY/MIGHT

• The difference is best seen by examples:

(a) Imagine that we have three keys on a ring and we know that one of these keys opens the cellar door. We might begin by picking one key and saying: This may/might be the key. (Perhaps this is the key.) But after trying two keys unsuccessfully, we will pick up the third key and say This must be the key. No other choice remains.

(b) I wonder why Tom hasn’t answered my letter. ~ He may/might be ill. (Perhaps he is ill. But there are other possibilities also: he may be away or too busy to answer.)

• But imagine that Bill never has any visitors. If an ambulance stops at his door the neighbors will say Bill must be ill. This is the only possible explanation of the arrival of the ambulance.

• He may have come by train. (Perhaps he came by train. But there are other possibilities: he might have come by taxi or bus.)

• But He must have come by taxi implies that he had no choice. There was no other way of making this journey.

XXXIII. HAVE/HAD USED FOR DEDUCTION

• This is an American usage which is sometimes heard in Britain. have/had here is chiefly used with to be: There’s a tall grey bird fishing in the river. ~ It has to be/must be a heron.

• had + to be can express the speaker’s feeling of certainty in the past:

There was a knock on the door. It had to be Tom. (She was sure it was Tom.)

• had + to be can also be an alternative to must + perfect infinitive:

I wonder who took the money. ~ It had to be Tom/It must have been Tom. He’s the only one who was there.

• But, to avoid confusion, the learner is advised to stick to the must forms.

XXXIV. CAN’T AND COULDN’T USED FOR NEGATIVE DEDUCTION

A Negative deductions about a present event can be expressed by can’t/couldn’t with the present infinitive of the verb be or with the continuous infinitive of any verb:

CHILD: Can I have some sweets? I’m hungry.
MOTHER: You can’t/couldn’t be hungry. You’ve just had dinner.

ANN (looking through binoculars): An airplane is pulling up people from the boat!
TOM: It can’t/couldn’t be an airplane. It must be a helicopter.
He says he’s still reading ‘The Turn of the Screw’. ~ He can ‘t/couldn’t still be reading it. I lent it to him ages ago and it’s quite a short book.

B Negative deductions about a past event are expressed

• can’t/couldn’t + the perfect infinitive or continuous perfect infinitive of any verb:

A man answered the phone. 1 suppose it was her husband. ~ It can ‘t/couldn’t have been her husband. He’s been dead for ages.
I took a Circle Line train to St Paul’s. ~ You can’t/couldn’t have taken the Circle Line. It doesn’t go through St Paul’s. You must have been on the Central Line.

• couldn’t must be used when the deduction is made in the past or introduced by a verb in the past tense:

She said I couldn’t have come on the Circle Line. He said it couldn’t be an airplane.

• Otherwise either can’t or couldn’t can be used.

XXXV. WILL AND SHOULD FOR ASSUMPTION

A will used for assumptions about present or past actions

• will here can be used with the present infinitive (for non- deliberate actions only) or with the continuous or perfect infinitive:

Ring his home number. He’ll be at home now. (I’m sure he’s at home.)
He’ll be expecting a call from you. (I’m sure he’s expecting a call.)
He’ll have finished his supper. (I’m sure he has finished his supper.)
It’s no use asking Tom; he won’t know. (I’m sure he doesn’t.)
Will Bill be at the club now, do you think? (Do you think he is?)

B should used for assumptions about present or past actions should here is used mainly with the present infinitive (for non-deliberate actions only) in the affirmative or negative. It is sometimes also possible with the continuous and perfect infinitives:

The plane should be landing now. (I expect it is landing.)
The letter should have arrived by now. (I expect it has arrived.)

• Assumptions with should are less confident than assumptions with will:

Tom should know the address. (I expect Tom knows it.) But Tom’ll know the address. (I’m sure Tom knows it.)
He should have finished by now. (I expect he has finished.) But He’ll have finished by now. (I’m sure he has finished.)

• should is not used for assumptions which displease the speaker:

Let’s not go shopping now. The shops will be very crowded, (should would not be used.)

• But for the opposite (agreeable) assumption, either word could be used:

Let’s go shopping now. The shops will be/should be fairly empty. or The shops won’t be/shouldn’t be too crowded.

C will and should can also express assumptions about the future:

He should/will have plenty of time to get to the station. They shouldn’t/won ‘t have any difficulty in finding the house.

• will + present infinitive used for assumptions about the future is not restricted to non-deliberate actions.

D ought to can be used in the same way as should in B and C above:

The plane ought to be/should be taking off in a minute.

• But should is the more usual form.

XXXVI. COMMANDS EXPRESSED BY THE IMPERATIVE

A The second person imperative

1 This has the same form as the bare infinitive: Hurry! Wait! Stop!

• For the negative we put do not (don’t) before the verb: Don’t hurry!

2 The person addressed is very often not mentioned, but can be expressed by a noun placed at the end of the phrase: Eat your dinner, boys. Be quiet, Tom.

* These nouns can be placed before the verb, but this is much less usual.

• The pronoun you is rarely used unless the speaker wishes to be rude, or wishes to make a distinction, as in: You go on; I’ll wait.

3 do can be placed before the affirmative imperative: Do hurry. Do be quiet. (This do could be persuasive, but could also express irritation.)

В The first person imperative Form let us (let’s) +bare infinitive: Let us stand together in this emergency.

• For the negative we normally put not before the infinitive: Let us not be alarmed by rumors.

• But it is possible in colloquial English to put don’t before let’s: Don’t let’s be alarmed by rumors.

• By let us (let’s) the speaker can urge his hearers to act in a certain way, or express a decision which they are expected to accept, or express a suggestion.

С The third person imperative Form let him/her/it/them + bare infinitive: Let them go by train.

• This is not a very common construction in modern English. It would be more usual to say:

They are to go/must go by train.

• The negative imperative, let him/her/them + negative infinitive, is not used in modern English. Instead, we would use must not or is/are not to: They must not/are not to go by air.

XXXVII. OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING COMMANDS

A Subject + shall for third person commands (in written English)

• shall can be used in very formal written regulations which will normally remain in force for some time. These are very often in the passive:

The Chairman, Secretary, and Treasurer shall be elected annually. (club regulations)

A record shall be kept of the number of students attending each class. (college regulations)

В Subject + will, mainly for third person commands:

When the alarm rings passengers and crew will assemble at their boat stations. (notice on board ship)

• This is a formal, impersonal, peremptory type of command, implying that the person giving the order is quite certain that he will be obeyed. It is used chiefly in written instructions by people who have some authority, e.g. captains of ships, officers of the services, headmasters of schools, trainers of sports teams etc.: The team will report to the gymnasium for weight-lifting training.

• Note that if we move the will and place it before the subject, we turn the command into a request. It is possible to use you will for spoken commands: You will not mention this meeting to anyone.

• But it is more usual and more polite to use must: You must not mention this meeting to anyone.

С Commands are often expressed as obligations by must: You must not smoke in the petrol store.

Passengers must cross the line by the footbridge. Dogs must be kept on leads in this area.

D Instructions or orders can be conveyed by the be + infinitive construction:

You are to report for duty immediately. The switchboard is to be manned at all times.
E Prohibitions may be expressed in written instructions by may not:

Candidates may not bring textbooks into the examination room.

XXXVIII. REQUESTS WITH CAN/COULD/MAY/MIGHT I/WE

A can/could/may/might I/we + have + noun/pronoun

• can is the most informal:

(a) ‘Can I have a sweet?’ said the little boy.

• can I/we, when used by adults, sounds more confident than could I/we.

• could I/we is the most generally useful form:

(b) Could I have a cup of tea? Could I have two tickets, please?

• may and might are more formal than could, but possible in both spoken and written English:

• These requests are usually reported by ask (+ indirect object) + for + object:

The little boy asked (me) for a sweet. He asked for a copy of the letter.

• But (c) above could also be reported: He asked if he might have a copy of the letter.

B can/could/may/might I/we + verb

• For the difference between them, see A above.

• These could be requests for permission, but with certain verbs, e.g. see, speak (to), talk (to), they can be ordinary requests: May/Could I see Mr. Jones? = I would like to see Mr. Jones.

• This type of request is reported by ask to see/to speak to etc.: I asked to see Mr. Jones.

• Do not put a noun/pronoun after ask, as this would change the meaning.

• In colloquial English ask for + name etc. would also be possible, especially when reporting a telephone conversation:

CALLER: Could I speak to the secretary, please? = She asked for the secretary/to speak to the secretary.

С could/might I/we requests can be preceded by do you think … ?

• I wonder(ed) / was wondering if…. These prefixes make the requests more diffident:

I wonder/was wondering if I could have tomorrow off?
Do you think I could speak to the secretary?

• Note the change from interrogative to affirmative verb.

XXXIX. REQUESTS WITH COULD/WILL/WOULD YOU ETC.

A could you* is a very useful request form: Could you please show me the way?

• possibly can be added to show that the speaker is asking for something extra:

Could you possibly lend me $500?

• couldn’t expresses the speaker’s hopes for a more favorable answer than has just been indicated:

I can’t wait. ~ Couldn’t you wait five minutes?

• you couldn’t . . . could you? can be used to express a not very hopeful request:

You couldn’t wait five minutes, could you?
You couldn’t give me a hand with this, could you? (The speaker doesn’t really expect a favorable answer in either case.)

В will/would you* (please): Will/Would you please count your change?
• would you (please) has the same meaning as could you.

• will you is more authoritative and therefore less polite. will/would you can be placed at the end of the phrase: Shut the door, will you?

• But this form can only be used in very friendly relaxed situations. Used otherwise, it would sound very rude.

• will/would can also be used for third person requests:

Would Mrs. Jones, passenger to Leeds, please come to the Enquiry Desk?
Will anyone who saw the accident please phone this number . . . ? (police announcement)

С you’ll . . . won’t you? is a persuasive type of request used mainly among friends:

You’ll write to me, won’t you?

D would you mind* + gerund: Would you mind moving your car?

E perhaps you would implies confidence that the other person will perform this service. It would not be used at the beginning of a conversation or letter, but would be possible later on:

Perhaps you would let me know when your new stock arrives = Please let me know when your new stock arrives.

F if you would is a useful request form. It is used in spoken English for routine-type requests which the speaker is quite sure will be obeyed:

If you’d fill up this form/take a seat/wait a few minutes. (in an office)
If you ‘d sign the register/follow the porter. (in a hotel)

• just can be added to show that the action required is very easy:

If you’d just put your address on the back of the check. (in a shop)

G would you like to . . . ? is also a possible request form: Would you like to take a seat? = Please take a seat.

H I should/would be very grateful if you would is a formal request form found chiefly in letters but possible in speech:

I should be very grateful if you would let me know if you have any vacancies.

I Would you be good/kind enough to keep me informed? Would you be so kind as to keep me informed?

J I wish you would can be a request form. It sometimes implies that the other person should be helping or have offered to do it: I wish you’d give me a hand.

К Starred would and could forms may be introduced by phrases such as do you think? I wonder(ed) if, I was wondering if: Do you think you could lend me $500?

XXXX. REQUESTS WITH MIGHT

A you might can express a very casual request: You might post these for me.

• But it can only be used in friendly relaxed situations, otherwise it would sound rude.

В With a certain intonation and a strong stress on the important word might can express a reproachful request: You might help me, with stress on help might imply ‘Why aren’t you helping me?/You should be helping me’.

С might can also be used with other persons to express this sort of irritation: He might pay us!, with stress on pay could mean ‘We are annoyed that he doesn’t pay/hasn’t paid us’.

D might + perfect infinitive can express irritation at or reproach for the non-performance of an action in the past: You might have told us, with stress on told could mean ‘You should have told us’.

XXXXI. INVITATIONS

A will you have/would you like + noun:

Will you have a drink? (sometimes shortened to Have a drink.) Would you like a coffee?

• Note that do you want is not an invitation.

• In indirect speech we use offer + indirect object (= person addressed) + noun:

She offered me a drink/a coffee.

В will/would/could you?/ would you like to?

• Will you have lunch with me tomorrow? is informal, but Would/Could you have lunch with me? or Would you like to have lunch with me? can be used in both informal and formal situations.

• These invitations would be reported by invite/ask + direct object + to + noun, or invite/ask + direct object + infinitive: He invited me to lunch/to have lunch with him.

С Answers to invitations

• Offers of a drink/a cigarette etc. are usually answered: Yes, please. or No, thank you.

• Invitations with would you/could you/would you like are usually answered:

I’d like to very much/I’d love to. or I’d like to very much but I’m afraid I can’t.

• wouldn’t like, of course, would not be possible. An invitation and answer might be reported:

He invited us to dinner/to a party/to spend the weekend with him and we accepted/but we refused/but we had to refuse because . . .

D When the speaker doesn’t really expect his offer/invitation to be accepted he can say:

You wouldn’t like another drink, would you? (Perhaps the speaker would like another drink himself, and wants an excuse. He doesn’t really expect that his friend will accept, though.)
You wouldn’t like to come with me, would you? (Again he doesn’t really expect an acceptance.)

XXXXII. ADVICE FORMS

A must, ought to and should can be used for advice:

You must read this book. It’s marvelous. You should grow your own vegetables.
You ought to plant some trees.

• In indirect speech must, ought to and should here can remain unchanged or be reported by advise + object: He advised me to plant trees.

В you had better + bare infinitive: You’d better take off your wet shoes. You’d better not wait any longer.

• had better can be used with the third person: He’d better stop taking those pills.

С if I were you I should/would: If I were you I’d buy a car.

• This is often shortened to I should/would with a slight stress on the I: I’d buy a car.

• In indirect speech If I were you I should/would … is reported by advise + object:

He advised me to buy a car.

D I advise/would advise you + infinitive: I (would) advise you to apply at once.

• or I advise/would advise + gerund: I(’d) advise applying at once.

E why don’t you . . . ? can be either advice or suggestion:

Why don’t you learn to play your guitar? Why don’t you take a holiday?

• When this is advice it is reported by advise + object: He advised me to take a holiday.

F it is time you + past tense: It is time you bought a new coat.

• This would be reported: He said it was time I bought a new coat.

XXXXIII. ADVICE WITH MAY/MIGHT AS WELL + INFINITIVE

• This construction can express very unemphatic advice:

You may/might as well ask him = It would do no harm to ask him.
She said I might as well ask him.

• This form can be used with the third person: He may as well come with me.

• and the speaker may use it of himself:

As there isn’t anything more to do, I may as well go home early.

XXXXIV. SUGGESTIONS

A First person suggestions with let’s or shall I/we

• let’s + infinitive: Let’s paint it ourselves.

• shall we is sometimes added: Let’s get the paint today, shall we?

• shall I/we + infinitive: Shall we invite Bill?

• Suggestions with let’s or shall we can be answered affirmatively by yes, let’s, let’s not could be used jokingly as a negative answer: Let’s take the tent. ~ Let’s not!

• Or it can introduce a negative suggestion: Let’s not start too early!

• don’t let’s could also be used here: Don’t let’s start too early.

В First and second person suggestions

• why don’t we/you + infinitive or why not + infinitive/expression of time or place:

Why don’t we meet and discuss it? Why not meet and discuss it?
Where shall we meet? ~ Why not here?/Why not at the hotel?

• In colloquial English what’s wrong with/what’s the matter with + noun could also be used:

What’s wrong with the hotel?

• what/how about + gerund/noun: Where shall we sleep? ~ What about renting a caravan?

What about a bed and breakfast place?

• suppose I/we/you + present or past tense: Suppose you offer/offered to pay him?

С First, second or third person suggestions with suggest or propose

• suggest (+ possessive adjective) + gerund, or suggest that + subject + present tense/should.

• propose is used in exactly the same way but is slightly more formal than suggest.

• In the active, suggest + should + infinitive is more formal than suggest + a present or past tense.

I suggest (your) selling it. We suggest that you should sell it. (formal)
I propose that the secretary sends in/should send in a report. (formal)
I propose that a report (should) be sent in. (formal)

• that . . . should is necessary in the passive.

• With should be it is possible in formal English to omit the should, leaving the be alone, as shown above.

D Suggestions in indirect speech

• Suggestions can be reported by:

• suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund, or suggest that + subject + present tense/should, or suggested that + subject + past tense/should, or suggest (any tense) + noun/pronoun:

Tom suggests/suggested (our) having a meeting.
Ann suggests that he sells/should sell his house.
Ann suggested that he sold/should sell it.
Mr. Jones suggested a meeting.

XXXXV. HABITS EXPRESSED BY WILL, WOULD

A Habits in the present are normally expressed by the simple present tense; but will + infinitive can be used instead when we wish to emphasize the characteristics of the performer rather than the action performed. It is chiefly used in general statements:

An Englishman will usually show you the way in the street. (It is normal for an Englishman to act in this way.)

• This is not a very important use of will, but the past form, would, has a much wider use and can replace used to when we are describing a past routine:

On Sundays he used to/would get up early and go fishing. He used to/would spend the whole day by the river and in the evening used to/would come home with marvelous stories of the fish he had nearly caught.

• Note, however, that when used to expresses a discontinued habit, it cannot be replaced by would. Both will and would can be contracted when used as above.

В will can also express obstinate insistence, usually habitual:

If you will keep your watch half an hour slow, it is hardly surprising that you are late for your appointments.

• would is used in the past: We all tried to stop him smoking in bed but he would do it.

• will and would are not contracted here and are strongly stressed.

С would can express a characteristic action, usually one which annoys the speaker:

Bill objects/objected. ~ He would./He would object! (He always objects.)

XXXXVI. SHOULD/WOULD THINK + THAT-CLAUSE OR SO/NOT

A Will it be expensive? ~ I should/would think so./I should think it would. (= probably ‘Yes’) or I shouldn’t think it would./1 shouldn’t/wouldn’t think so./ I should/would think not. (= probably ‘No’)

• By this sort of answer the speaker implies that he doesn’t really know but that this is his impression. I should/would think is therefore less confident than I think.

• so/not is not usually possible when should/would think introduces a comment. A that-clause therefore has to be used:

He’s an astrologer, looking for work. ~ I shouldn’t/wouldn’t think that he’d find it easy to get work.

В If we are commenting on a past action we use should/would have thought:

He actually got a job as an astrologer. ~ I shouldn’t/wouldn’t have thought that it was possible to do that.

С should/would have expected + an infinitive construction or a that-clause is also possible. The impersonal pronoun you can sometimes replace I:

She has emigrated. ~ Has she? You’d/I’d have expected her to stay in this country.

XXXXVII. WOULD FOR PAST INTENTION

• As has already been noted, would is the past equivalent of will when will is used for the ordinary future: He knows he will be late. He knew he would be late.

• would similarly is the past equivalent of will used to express intention:

I said, ‘I will help him’. = I said that I would help him.
He said, ‘I won’t lend you a penny.’ = He said that he wouldn’t lend me a penny.

• But notice that whereas would used for future or intention is restricted to subordinate clauses as in the above examples, wouldn’t used for negative intention can stand alone:

He won’t help me today. (He refuses to help.)
He wouldn’t help me yesterday. (He refused to help.)

• would cannot be used in this way. So to put a sentence such as I will help him today into the past, we have to replace will by another verb: I wanted/intended/offered to help him yesterday.

XXXXVIII. SHALL I/WE? IN REQUESTS FOR ORDERS OR ADVICE, OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS

• Requests for orders: How shall I cook it? Where shall we put this?

• When the request is for advice only, we use either shall or should:

Which one shall I buy? or Which one should I buy?

• Offers: Shall I wait for you? Shall I help you to pack?

• Suggestions: Shall we meet at the theatre? Let’s meet at the theatre, shall we?

XXXXIX. SHALL IN THE SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS

• shall can express (A) the subject’s intention to perform a certain action or to cause it to be performed, and (B) a command. Both these uses are old-fashioned and formal and normally avoided in modern spoken English.

A Examples of shall used to express the speaker’s intention:

You shall have a sweet = I’ll give you a sweet. or I’ll see that you get a sweet.
He shan’t come here = I won’t let him come here.
They shall not pass = We won’t let them pass.

• In the past, i.e. in indirect speech, it is usually necessary to change the wording:

He said, ‘You shall have a sweet’ = He promised me a sweet.

В Examples of shall used to express a command:

Yachts shall go round the course, passing the marks in the correct order. (yacht-racing rules)
Members shall enter the names of their guests in the book provided. (club rules)

• This construction is chiefly used in regulations or legal documents. In less formal English must or are to would be used instead of shall in the above sentences.

С shall you? is an old-fashioned form which is occasionally still found in some novels possibly because it is shorter and neater than the future continuous tense: Shall you go? = Will you be going?

XXXXX. THAT . . . SHOULD AFTER CERTAIN VERBS

• Certain verbs can be followed by that + subject + should as an alternative to a gerund or infinitive construction. that . . . should is particularly useful in the passive and sometimes is the only possible passive form.

• that . . . should is more formal than a gerund or infinitive construction and usually implies less direct contact between the advisers/organizers etc. and the people who are to carry out the action. Verbs which can be used with that . . . should include the following: advise, agree, arrange, ask, beg, command, decide, demand, determine, insist, order, propose, recommend, request, stipulate, suggest, urge. Note also: be anxious, be determined.

She advised that we should keep the gate locked.
She advised that the gate should be kept locked.
She advised keeping the gate locked/advised us to keep it locked.

• recommend could be used above instead of advise and would sound more formal.

They agreed/decided that the roof should be repaired.
They agreed/decided to repair the roof.
He arranged that I should go abroad.
He arranged for me to go abroad.
They arranged that the minister should be met at the airport.
They arranged for the minister to be met at the airport.

• be anxious (= wish) takes the same construction as arrange:

He is anxious that classes should start/should be started at once.
He is anxious for classes to start/to be started at once.
They asked/begged/urged that relief work should be given priority.
They asked/begged/urged the authorities to give relief work priority.
He commanded that the army should advance. (He was not necessarily with the army.)
He commanded the army to advance. (He probably was with the army.)
She determined/was determined that he should study music.
She determined/was determined to let him/make him study music.
She insisted that he should study music/insisted on his studying music.
He ordered that Ann should go. (He probably told someone else to tell her.)
He ordered Ann to go. (He probably told her himself.)
He ordered that the goods should be sent by air.
He ordered the goods to be sent by air.
He proposed/suggested that we should try homeopathic remedies.
He proposed/suggested that homeopathic remedies should be tried. He proposed/suggested (our) trying homeopathic remedies.
They stipulated that the best materials should be used. They stipulated for the best materials to be used.

• should is sometimes omitted before be.

XXXXXI. IT IS/WAS + ADJECTIVE + THAT . . . SHOULD

A that . . . should can be used after it is/was advisable, better, desirable essential, imperative, important, natural, necessary, after fair (= just), just, right (these are often preceded by only) and after reasonable, as an alternative to a for + infinitive construction:

It is advisable that everyone should have a map. It is better for him to hear it from you.
It is better that he should hear it from you. It is essential for him to be prepared for this.
It is essential that he should be prepared for this. It is only right that she should have a share.

• should is sometimes omitted before be: It is essential that he be prepared.

В that . . . should can be used after it is/was absurd, amazing, annoying, ludicrous, odd, ridiculous, strange, surprising and similar adjectives as an alternative to that + present/past tense:

It is ridiculous that we should be (= that we are) short of water in a country where it is always raining.

• The perfect infinitive is sometimes used when referring to past events:

It is amazing that she should have said (= that she said) nothing about the murder.

XXXXXII. OTHER USES OF SHOULD

A After can’t think why/don’t know why/see no reason why etc. when the speaker queries the reasonableness or justice of an assumption:

I don’t know why you should think that I did it.
I see no reason why you should interfere in their quarrel.

• The perfect infinitive is usual when the assumption was in the past:

I can’t think why he should have said that it was my fault.

В Idiomatically with what, where, who in dramatic expressions of surprise:

What should I find but an enormous spider!

• Quite often the surprise is embarrassing: Who should come in but his first wife!

С After lest and sometimes after in case:

1 In literary English lest . . . should is sometimes placed after expressions of fear or anxiety:

He was terrified lest he should slip on the icy rocks.

• should + perfect infinitive is used when the anxiety concerns a previous action:

She began to be worried lest he should have met with some accident.

• lest can also be used in purpose clauses to mean ‘for fear that’: He dared not spend the money lest someone should ask where he had got it.

• As above, this is a literary form.

• in case, which is more usual than lest here, can be followed by should or by an ordinary present or past tense: in case someone should ask/someone asked

D should is sometimes used in purpose clauses as an alternative to would/could:

He wore a mask so that no one should recognize him.

E In conditional sentences instead of the present tense:

If the pain should return take another of these pills.

F In indirect, rather formal, commands when the recipient of the command is not necessarily addressed directly: He ordered that Tom should leave the house.

• Compare with: He ordered Tom to leave. which implies that he told Tom himself.

XXXXXIII. DARE

A In the affirmative dare is conjugated like an ordinary verb, i.e. dare/dares in the present, dared in the past. But in the negative and interrogative it can be conjugated either like an ordinary verb or like an auxiliary, i.e. it is a semi-modal.

• Negative:

• present do/does not dare dare not
• past did not dare dared not

• Interrogative:

• present do you/does he dare? dare you/he?
• past did you/did he dare? dared you/he?

• The ordinary verb construction is more commonly used.

B Infinitives after dare

• Negatives and interrogative forms with do/did are in theory followed by the infinitive with to, but in practice the to is often omitted:

He doesn’t dare (to) say anything. Did he dare (to) criticize my arrangements?

• dare I/he/you? etc. and dare not forms take the infinitive without to:

Dare we interrupt? They dared not move.

• When dare is preceded by nobody, anybody etc. the to is optional: Nobody dared (to) speak.

C dare is not much used in the affirmative except in the expression I daresay. I daresay (or I dare say) has two idiomatic meanings:

1 ‘I suppose”: I dare say there’ll be a restaurant car on the train.

2 ‘I accept what you say (but it doesn’t make any difference)’:

ENGLISH TOURIST: But I drive on the left in England!
SWISS POLICEMAN: I daresay you do, but we drive on the right here.
TRAVELLER: But the watch was given to me; I didn’t buy it.
CUSTOMS OFFICER: I daresay you didn’t, but you’ll have to pay duty on it all the same.

• daresay is used in this way with the first person singular only.

D how dare(d) you? how dare(d) he/they? can express indignation:

How dare you open my letters? (I am angry with you for opening them.)
How dared he complain? (I am indignant because he complained.)

E dare is also an ordinary transitive verb meaning ‘challenge’ (but only to deeds requiring courage). It is followed by object + full infinitive:

MOTHER: Why did you throw that stone through the window?
SON: Another boy dared me (to throw it).

XXXXXIV. USED

A Form

• used is the past tense of a defective verb which has no present tense.

• Affirmative: used for all persons
• Negative: used not for all persons
• Interrogative: used you/he/they? etc.
• Negative interrogative: used you not? etc.
• Negative and interrogative can also be formed with did: didn’t use to did you use to? didn’t you use to? This is a more informal form, common in conversation. used is followed by the full infinitive, and to remind learners of this it is often referred to as used to (just as have used for obligation is referred to as have to).

B Use

• used is used:

1 To express a discontinued habit or a past situation which contrasts with the present:

I used to smoke cigarettes; now I smoke a pipe.
He used to drink beer; now he drinks wine.
She usedn’t to like Tom but she quite likes him now. or
She used to dislike Tom but she quite likes him now.

• used is not normally stressed, but it can be stressed if the speaker wishes to emphasize the contrast between past and present.

2 To express a past routine or pattern. Here we are not making a contrast between past and present; we are merely describing someone’s routine during a certain period. Very often there is a succession of actions, used to here is replaceable by would (but would cannot replace used to for a discontinued habit etc. as in 1 above), used here is always unstressed.

Tom and Ann were a young married couple. Every morning Tom used to kiss Ann and set off for work. Ann used to stand at the window and wave goodbye. In the evening she used to welcome him home and ask him to tell her about his day.

• If we use would, we have:

Every morning Tom would kiss Ann and set off for work. Ann would stand at the window and wave goodbye etc.

• Remember that used has no present form. So for present habits or routines we must use the simple present tense.

XXXXXV. USED AS AN ADJECTIVE: TO BE/BECOME/GET USED TO

• used can also be an adjective meaning ‘accustomed’. It is then preceded by be, become or get in any tense and followed by the preposition to + noun/pronoun or gerund:

I am used to noise. I am used to working in a noisy room.
You will soon get used to the electric typewriters.
You will soon get used to typing on electric typewriters.
They soon got used to the traffic regulations.
They soon got used to driving on the left.

• I am used to … etc. is a psychological statement. I am used to working in a noisy room means that I have worked in a noisy room, so the noise doesn’t bother me; I don’t mind it. You’ll soon get used to typing on electric typewriters means that after you have used them for a while you will find them quite easy to use.

• Very often I’m used to it has the meaning ‘I don’t mind it/It doesn’t give me any trouble’, as in the above examples. But it can work the other way. Imagine our canteen serves only tea with its meals. A Frenchman, newly arrived from France, might say:

I’m used to wine with my meals, so I find these lunches rather unsatisfying.

• Do not confuse subject + be/become/get + used to with subject + used to.

• In the first, used is an adjective and to is a preposition. In the second, used is a verb and to is part of the following infinitive. Do not confuse these forms with the regular verb to use /ju:z/ meaning ‘employ’.