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KPDS İNGİLİZCE DERS 20: CONJUNCTIONS & ADVERB CLAUSES
I. COOORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: and, but, both . . . and, or, either … or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also
• These join pairs of nouns/adjectives/adverbs/verbs/phrases/clauses:
He plays squash and rugby. I make the payments and keep the accounts.
He works quickly and/but accurately.
He is small but strong. She is intelligent but lazy. We came in first but (we) didn’t win the race.
Both men and women were drafted into the army. Ring Tom or Bill.
She doesn’t smoke or drink. He can’t (either) read or write.
You can (either) walk up or take the cable car.
He can neither read nor write. Not only men but also women were chosen.
II. BESIDES, HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS, OTHERWISE, SO, THEREFORE, STILL, YET, THOUGH
• These adverbs/conjunctions can join clauses or sentences and are then often known as ‘conjuncts’. But they can also, with the exception of nevertheless and therefore (conjuncts), be used in other ways. Their position will vary according to how they are used.
A besides (preposition) means ‘in addition to’. It precedes a noun/pronoun/gerund:
Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden.
• besides (conjunct) means ‘in addition’. It usually precedes its clause, but can follow it:
I can’t go now; I’m too busy. Besides, my passport is out of date.
• moreover could replace besides here in more formal English. anyway or in any case could be used here in more informal English: Anyway, my passport’s out of date.
В however precedes its adjective/adverb: You couldn’t earn much, however hard you worked.
• however (conjunct) usually means ‘but’. It can precede or follow its clause or come after the first word or phrase:
I’ll offer it to Tom. However, he may not want it or He may not want it however. or
Tom, however, may not want it. or I’ll, however, he doesn’t want it. . .
• But when two contrasting statements are mentioned, however can mean ‘but/nevertheless/all the same’: They hadn’t trained hard, but/however/nevertheless/all the same they won or they won.
С otherwise (adverb of manner) usually comes after the verb:
It must be used in a well-ventilated room. Used otherwise (= in a different way) it could be harmful.
• otherwise (conjunct) means ‘if not/or else’: We must be early; otherwise we won’t get a seat.
• or could also be used here in colloquial English: We must be early or (else) we won’t get a seat.
D so (adverb of degree) precedes its adjective/adverb:
It was so hot that. . . They ran so fast that. . .
• so (conjunct) precedes its clause: Our cases were heavy, so we took a taxi.
E therefore can be used instead of so in formal English. It can come at the beginning of the clause or after the first word or phrase; or before the main verb:
There is fog at JFK Airport; the plane, therefore, has been diverted/the plane has therefore been diverted/therefore the plane has been diverted.
F still and yet can be adverbs of time: The children are still up. They haven’t had supper yet.
• still and yet (conjunct) come at the beginning of clauses.
• still means ‘admitting that/nevertheless’.
• yet means ‘in spite of that/all the same/nevertheless’.
You aren’t rich; still, you could do something to help him.
They are ugly and expensive; yet people buy them.
G though/although normally introduce clauses of concession:
Though/Although they’re expensive, people buy them.
• though (but not although) can also be used to link two main clauses. though used in this way means ‘but’ or ‘yet’ and is placed sometimes at the beginning but more often at the end of its clause:
He says he’ll pay, though I don’t think he will or He says he’ll pay; I don’t think he will, though.
III. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: IF, THAT, THOUGH/ALTHOUGH, UNLESS, WHEN ETC.
• Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate adverb or noun clauses and are dealt with in the chapters on the different types of clause.
• Some conjunctions have more than one meaning and may introduce more than one type of clause.
• Pairs and groups of conjunctions which are sometimes confused with each other or with other parts of speech are dealt with below.
IV. THOUGH/ALTHOUGH AND IN SPITE OF (PREPOSITION PHRASE), DESPITE (PREPOSITION)
• Two opposing or contrasting statements, such as He had no qualifications and He got the job, could be combined as follows:
A With but, however or nevertheless:
He had no qualifications, but he got the job.
He had no qualifications; however, he got the job/he got the job, however.
He had no qualifications; nevertheless, he got the job.
В With though/although:
He got the job although he had no qualifications.
Although he had no qualifications he got the job.
С With in spite of/despite + noun/pronoun/gerund:
In spite of having no qualifications he got the job.
He got the job in spite of having no qualifications.
• despite = in spite of. It is chiefly used in newspapers and in formal English:
Despite the severe weather conditions all the cars completed the course.
D Note that though/although requires subject + verb: Although it was windy . . .
• and that in spite of/despite requires noun/pronoun or gerund: In spite of the wind . . .
• Some more examples:
Although it smelt horrible . . . = In spite of the horrible smell . . .
Although it was dangerous . . . = In spite of the danger . . .
Though he was inexperienced . . . = In spite of his inexperience/his being inexperienced . .
V. FOR AND BECAUSE
• These conjunctions have nearly the same meaning and very often either can be used. It is, however, safer to use because, as a clause introduced by for (which we will call a ‘for-clause’) has a more restricted use than a clause introduced by because:
1 A for-clause cannot precede the verb which it explains:
Because it was wet he took a taxi. (for is not possible.)
2 A for-clause cannot be preceded by not, but or any conjunction:
He stole, not because he wanted the money but because he liked stealing. (for not possible)
3 A for-clause cannot be used in answer to a question:
Why did you do it? ~ I did it because I was angry. (for not possible)
4 A for-clause cannot be a mere repetition of what has been already stated, but always includes some new piece of information:
He spoke in French. She was angry because he had spoken in French. (for is not possible.)
But She was angry, for she didn’t know French. (Here for is correct; because is also possible.)
• The reason for these restrictions is that a for-clause does not tell us why a certain action was performed, but merely presents a piece of additional information which helps to explain it.
• Some examples of for-clauses:
The days were short, for it was now December.
He took the food eagerly, for he had eaten nothing since dawn. :
When I saw her in the river I was frightened. For at that point the currents were dangerous.
• In speech a short pause is usually made before a for-clause and in written English this place is usually marked by a comma, and sometimes, as in the last example above, by a full stop.
• because could be used in the above sentences also, though for is better.
VI. WHEN, WHILE, AS USED TO EXPRESS TIME
A when is used, with simple tenses:
1 When one action occurs at the same time as another or in the span of another:
When it is wet the buses are crowded. When we lived in town we often went to the theatre.
2 When one action follows another: When she pressed the button the lift stopped.
В as is used:
1 When the second action occurs before the first is finished:
As I left the house I remembered the key. (This implies that I remembered the key before I had completed the action of leaving the house; I was probably still in the doorway. While I was leaving would have the same meaning here, but When I left would give the impression that the act of leaving was complete and the door shut behind me.
2 For parallel actions: He sang as he worked.
3 For parallel development:
As the sun rose the fog dispersed. As it grew darker it became colder = The darker it grew, the colder it became.
As she came to know him better she relied on him more.
As he became more competent he was given more interesting work.
• If we used when here we would lose all idea of simultaneous progression or development.
4 To mean while (= during the time that): As he stood there he saw two men enter the bar.
• But there is no particular advantage in using as here, and while is safer.
VII. AS MEANING WHEN/WHILE OR BECAUSE/SINCE
A Restricted use of as (= when/while)
• as here is chiefly used with verbs indicating action or development. It is not normally used with the type of verb listed in 168, except when there is an idea of development, as in B3 above. Nor is it normally used with verbs such as live, stay, remain.
В as used with the above verbs/types of verb normally means because/since:
As he was tired . . . = Because he was tired . . .
As he knew her well. . . = Because he knew her well . . .
As it contains alcohol . . . = Since/Because it contains alcohol. . .
As he lives near here . . . = Since/Because he lives . . .
С With most verbs, as can be used with either meaning:
As/While he shaved he thought about the coming interview.
As/Because he shaved with a blunt razor he didn’t make a very good job of it.
• If in doubt here, students should use while or because.
D as + noun can mean either when/while or because/since:
As a student he had known great poverty. = When he was a student he had known great poverty.
As a student he gets/got in for half price = Because he is/was a student he gets/got in . . .
As a married man, he has to think of his family. = Because/Since he is a married man . . .
• as meaning when/while here is usually followed by a perfect tense. as meaning because/since can be followed by any tense.
VIII. AS, WHEN, WHILE USED TO MEAN ALTHOUGH, BUT, SEEING THAT
A as can mean though/although but only in the combination adjective + as + subject + to be/to seem/to appear:
Tired as he was he offered to carry her = Though he was tired he offered to carry her. Strong as he was, he couldn’t lift it.
В while can mean but and is used to emphasize a contrast:
‘At sea’ means ‘on a ship’, while ‘at the sea’ means ‘at the seaside’.
Some people waste food while others haven’t enough.
• while can also mean although and is then usually placed at the beginning of a sentence:
While I sympathize with your point of view I cannot accept it.
С when can mean seeing that/although. It is therefore very similar to while, but is chiefly used to introduce a statement which makes another action seem unreasonable. It is often, though not necessarily, used with a question:
How can you expect your children to be truthful when you yourself tell lies?
It’s not fair to expect her to do all the cooking when she has had no training or experience.
D Do not confuse when and if
• When he comes implies that we are sure he will come. If he comes implies that we don’t know whether he will come or not.
IX. PURPOSE IS NORMALLY EXPRESSED BY THE INFINITIVE
• Purpose can be expressed by:
A The infinitive alone: He went to France to learn French. They stopped to ask the way.
• When there is a personal object of the main verb, the infinitive may refer to this and not to the subject: He sent Tom to the shop to buy bread. (Tom was to buy the bread.)
В in order or so as + infinitive
• in order + infinitive can imply either that the subject wants to perform the action or that he wants it to happen.
• so as + infinitive implies only that the subject wants the action to happen, in order is, therefore, the more generally useful.
• in order or so as are used:
1 With a negative infinitive to express a negative purpose:
He left his gun outside in order/so as not to frighten us.
2 With to be and to have:
She left work early in order/so as to be at home when he arrived.
She gave up work in order/so as to have more time with the children.
3 When the purpose is less immediate:
He is studying mathematics in order/so as to qualify for a better job. She learnt typing in order to help her husband with his work.
4 Sometimes in longer sentences, to emphasize that the infinitive indicates purpose:
He was accused of misrepresenting the facts in order/so as to make the scheme seem feasible.
He took much more trouble over the figures than he usually did in order/so as to show his new boss what a careful worker he was. (But in order/so as is not essential and is often omitted.)
• When the infinitive of purpose precedes the main verb, in order/so as may be placed first:
In order/So as to show his boss what a careful worker he was, he took extra trouble over the figures. (But here also in order/so as may be omitted.)
5 When there is a personal object but we want the infinitive to refer unambiguously to the subject:
He sent his sons to a boarding school in order/so as to have some peace. (He, not his sons, was going to have some peace.)
• Compare with:
He sent his sons to a boarding school to learn to live in a community. (Not he but his sons were to learn to live in a community.) But this in order/so as construction is not very common. It is more usual to say:
He sent his sons to a boarding school because he wanted to have some peace.
С in order (but not so as), used to emphasize that the subject really had this purpose in mind:
He bought diamonds when he was in Amsterdam! ~ That wasn’t surprising.
He went to Amsterdam in order to buy diamonds. (not for any other purpose)
• We could also, however, express this idea by stressing the first verb and omitting in order: He went to Amsterdam to buy diamonds.
D Infinitive + noun + preposition: I want a case to keep my records in.
I need a corkscrew to open this bottle with.
• Note that here we are talking about a particular purpose. For a general purpose we use for + gerund: This is a case for keeping records in.
A corkscrew is a tool for opening bottles.
X. INFINITIVES OF PURPOSE AFTER GO AND COME
• It is not normal to use an infinitive of purpose after the imperative or infinitive of go and come. Instead of Go to find Bill we normally say Go and find Bill; and instead of Come to talk to Ann we say Come and talk to Ann; i.e. instead of an imperative + an infinitive of purpose we use two imperatives joined by and. And instead of: I must go to help my mother and I’ll come to check the accounts. we normally say: I must go and help my mother and I’ll come and check the accounts. (i.e. instead of an infinitive + an infinitive of purpose we use two infinitives joined by and.)
• But when go and come are used as gerunds or in any present or past tense they take the ordinary infinitive of purpose:
I’m thinking of going to look for mushrooms. I went to help my mother.
I’ve come to check the accounts. I didn’t come to talk to Bill; I came to talk to you.
XI. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
• Clauses are necessary when the person to whom the purpose refers is different from the subject of the main clause, or when the original subject is stated again:
Ships carry lifeboats so that the crew can escape if the ship sinks.
This knife has a cork handle so that it will float if it falls overboard.
A Purpose clauses are usually expressed by so that + will/would or can/could + infinitive. can/could is used here to mean will/would be able to:
They make $10 notes a different size from $5 notes so that blind people can (= will be able to) tell the difference between them.
They wrote the notices in several languages so that foreign tourists could (= would be able to) understand them.
• can and will are used when the main verb is in a present, present perfect or future tense; could and would are used when the main verb is in a past tense. See the examples above and also:
I light/am lighting/have lit/will light the fire so that the house will be warm when they return.
I have given/will give him a key so that he can get into the house whenever he likes.
I pinned the note to his pillow so that he would be sure to see it.
There were telephone points every kilometer so that drivers whose cars had broken down would be able to/could summon help.
• If that is omitted from purpose clauses with can/could, the idea of purpose may disappear. The sentence He took my shoes so that I couldn’t leave the house would normally mean ‘He took my shoes to prevent my leaving etc.’ but He took my shoes, so I couldn’t leave the house would normally mean ‘He took my shoes; therefore I wasn’t able to leave’.
В Purpose clauses can also be formed by so that/in order that/that + may/might or shall/should + infinitive. These are merely more formal constructions than those shown in A above. There is no difference in meaning.
• Note that so that can be followed by will/can/may/shall or their past forms, while in order that or that are limited to may/shall or their past forms.
• that used alone is rarely found except in very dramatic speech or writing, or in poetry.
• The rules about sequences of tenses are the same as those shown above. The following are very formal:
We carved their names on the stone so that/in order that future generations should/might know what they had done.
These men risk their lives so that/in order that we may live more safely.
• may in the present tense is much more common than shall, which is rarely used. In the past tense either might or should can be used. The learner should know the above forms but should not normally need to use them, as for all ordinary purposes so that + can/could or will/would should be quite sufficient.
С Negative purpose clauses are made by putting the auxiliary verb (usually will/would or should) into the negative:
He wrote his diary in code so that his wife wouldn’t be able to read it. He changed his name so that his new friends wouldn’t/shouldn’t know that he had once been accused of murder.
Criminals usually telephone from public telephone boxes so that the police won’t be able to trace the call.
• Negative purpose clauses can, however, usually be replaced by to prevent + noun/pronoun + gerund, or to avoid + gerund:
He dyed his beard so that we shouldn’t recognize him/to prevent us recognizing him/to avoid being recognized. (passive gerund)
She always shopped in another village so that she wouldn’t meet her own neighbors/to avoid meeting her own neighbors.
• These infinitive phrases are preferred to negative purpose clauses.
XII. IN CASE AND LEST
A in case
1 in case + subject + verb can follow a statement or command:
I don’t let him climb trees in case he tears his trousers.
• This first action is usually a preparation for, or a precaution against, the action in the in case-clause, which is a possible future action. in case + present tense normally has the meaning ‘because this may happen/because perhaps this will happen’ or ‘for fear that this may happen’.
• in case + past tense normally means ‘because this might happen/because perhaps this would happen’ or ‘for fear that this would happen’.
• Both present tense and past tense here can be replaced by should + infinitive, should used here would express greater improbability, but this construction is not very usual.
2 Tenses with in case Main verb
Future present tense or
Present + in case +
Present perfect should + infinitive
Conditional past tense or
Past tense + in case +
should + infinitive
Past perfect
I’ll make a cake in case someone drops in at the weekend.
I carry a spare wheel in case I have/should have a puncture.
I always keep candles in the house in case there is a power cut.
I always kept candles in the house in case there was a power cut.
• lest means ‘for fear that’ and is followed by should:
He doesn’t/didn’t dare to leave the house lest someone should recognize him.
• lest is rarely found except in formal written English.
XIII. CLAUSES OF REASON AND RESULT/CAUSE
• Except for the type shown in A2 and A3 below, both these clauses can be introduced by as or because. But as is safer for clauses of reason (see A below) and because is safer for clauses of result/cause (see B).
A Clauses of reason
1 Introduced by as/because/since:
We camped there as/because/since it was too dark to go on.
As/Because/Since it was too dark to go on, we camped there.
2 ‘in view of the fact that’ can be expressed by as/since/seeing that, but not because:
As/Since/Seeing that you are here, you may as well give me a hand.
As/Since/Seeing that Tom knows French, he’d better do the talking.
3 Where as/since/seeing that refers to a statement previously made or understood, it is replaceable by if:
As/Since/Seeing that/If you don’t like Bill, why did you invite him?
• Note the use of if so:
I hope Bill won’t come. ~ If so (= If you hope he won’t come), why did you invite him?
В Clauses of result/cause are introduced by because or as:
The fuse blew because we had overloaded the circuit.
He was angry because we were late.
As it froze hard that night there was ice everywhere next day.
As the soup was very salty we were thirsty afterwards.
С These combinations could also be expressed by two main clauses joined by so:
It was too dark to go on, so we camped there.
You are here, so you may as well give me a hand.
It froze hard that night, so there was ice everywhere next day.
• Therefore can also be used, but is normal only in fairly formal sentences:
The Finnish delegate has not yet arrived. We are therefore postponing. We have therefore decided to postpone/Therefore we are postponing the meeting. (Notice possible positions of therefore.)
XIV. CLAUSES OF RESULT WITH SUCH/SO . . . THAT
A such is an adjective and is used before an adjective + noun:
They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house. He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep.
В so is an adverb and is used before adverbs and with adjectives which are not followed by their nouns:
The snow fell so fast that our footsteps were soon covered up.
His speech went on for so long that people began to fall asleep.
Their dog was so fierce that no one dared come near it.
• But such is never used before much and many, so so is used even when much and many are followed by nouns: There was so much dust that we couldn’t see what was happening.
So many people complained that they took the program off.
С Note that such + a + adjective + noun is replaceable by so + adjective + a + noun, so that ’such a good man’ is replaceable by ’so good a man’. This is only possible when a noun is preceded by a/an. It is not a very usual form but may be met in literature. Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence. It is then followed by the inverted form of the verb:
So terrible was the storm that whole roofs were ripped off.
XV. CLAUSES OF CONCESSION
• These are introduced by although, though, even though, even if, no matter, however and sometimes by whatever. as is also possible, but only in the adjective + as + be construction.
Although/Though/Even though/Even if you don’t like him you can still be polite.
No matter what you do, don’t touch this switch.
However rich people are, they always seem anxious to make more money.
However carefully you drive, you will probably have an accident eventually.
Whatever you do, don’t tell him that I told you this.
Patient as he was, he had no intention of waiting for three hours. (though he was patient)
• may + infinitive can be used in hypothetical cases:
However frightened you may be yourself, you must remain outwardly calm.
• may can also imply I accept the fact that’:
But he’s your brother! ~ He may be my brother but I don’t trust him!
• But may used in this way is part of another main clause, not a clause of concession.
• should + infinitive can be used after even if just as it can after if in conditional sentences, to express the idea that the action expressed by the infinitive is not very likely to take place:
Even if he should find out he won’t do anything about it.
XVI. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
A Comparisons with adjectives and finite verbs:
It’s darker today than it was yesterday.
He doesn’t pay as much tax as we do/as us.
He spends more than he earns.
• Note that + adjective, a colloquial form:
Will it cost $100? – No, it won’t cost as much as (all) that. It won’t be (all) that expensive. (It won’t be as expensive as that.)
• that + adjective is sometimes used colloquially to mean very.
В Comparisons with adverbs and finite verbs: He didn’t play as well as we expected/as well as you (did).
He sings more loudly than anyone I’ve ever heard/than anyone else (does).
You work harder than he does/than him/than I did at your age.
С Comparisons with adjectives and infinitives or gerunds
• Often either can be used, but the infinitive is more usual for a particular action, and gerunds are more usual for general statements (see also E below):
It’s sometimes as cheap to buy a new one as (it is) (to) repair the old one.
Buying a new one is sometimes as cheap as repairing the old one.
He found that lying on the beach was just as boring as sitting in his office. or
He found lying on the beach just as boring as sitting. etc. (The infinitive would be less usual here.)
He thinks it (is) safer to drive himself than (to) let me drive.
He thinks that driving himself is safer than letting me drive.
It will soon be more difficult to get a visa than it is now.
Getting a visa will soon be more difficult than it is now.
D In comparisons of the type shown in С above, if we have an infinitive before as/than we will usually have an infinitive (not a gerund) after it. Similarly, if we have a gerund before as/than we will normally have a gerund (not an infinitive) after it. See examples above. But if we have a finite verb + this/that/which before as/than we can have a gerund after it. An infinitive is possible but would be much less usual:
I’ll deliver it by hand; this will be cheaper than posting it.
He cleaned his shoes, which was better than doing nothing.
E Infinitives are used with would rather/sooner:
Most people would rather work than starve.
I would resign rather than accept him as a partner.
XVIII. TIME CLAUSES
A These are introduced by conjunctions of time such as:
after immediately till/until
as no sooner . . . than when
as soon as since whenever
before the sooner while
hardly . . . when
• They can also be introduced by the minute, the moment. .
В Remember that we do not use a future form, or a conditional tense, in a time clause.
1 Each of the following future forms becomes a present tense when we put it in a time clause:
• Future simple: You ‘II be back soon. I’ll stay till then. = I’ll stay till you get back.
• be going to: The parachutist is going to jump. Soon after he jumps his parachute will open.
• The present continuous, used as a future form, and the future continuous:
He’s arriving/He’ll be arriving at six. but When he arrives he’ll tell us all about the match.
Before he arrives I’ll give the children their tea.
• But the continuous tense can, of course, be used in time clauses when it indicates a continuous action:
Peter and John will be playing / are playing / are going to play tennis tonight. While they are playing (during this time) we’ll go to the beach.
2 The future perfect changes to the present perfect, and the future perfect continuous changes to the present perfect continuous: I’ll have finished in the bathroom in a few minutes.
The moment/As soon as I have finished I’ll give you a call.
3 A conditional tense changes to a past tense:
We knew that he would arrive/would be arriving about six.
We knew that till he arrived nothing would be done.
• But when when introduces a noun clause it can be followed by a future or conditional tense:
He said, ‘When will the train get in?’ = He asked when the train would get in.
С Clauses with since
• In clauses since is usually followed by past tenses:
They’ve moved house twice since they got married. or
Since they got married, they’ve moved house twice.
He said he’d lived in a tent since his house burnt down.
It’s ages since I sailed/have sailed a boat.
I haven’t sailed a boat since I left college.
D Clauses with after
• In clauses after is often followed by perfect tenses:
After/When he had rung off I remembered . . .
After/When you’ve finished with it, hang it up.
E hardly/scarcely . . . when, no sooner . . . than
The performance had hardly begun when the lights went out. or
Hardly had the performance begun when the lights went out.
• scarcely could replace hardly here but is less usual:
He had no sooner drunk the coffee than he began to feel drowsy. or
No sooner had he drunk the coffee than he began to feel drowsy.
He no sooner earns any money than he spends it. or
Immediately he earns any money he spends it. (more colloquial)
• Note also the sooner . . . the sooner: The sooner we start, the sooner we’ll be there.
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